Index
1. Summary: The quantum entanglement,
explained through a comprehensive approach Alcubierre metric / Maldacena conjecture /
Barbour Parallel Universes
2.Possible ways in
which our Universe (that of ordinary matter) can "ask for help" from
the Universe of the quantum vacuum
3.Alternative explanation of the double-slit experiment
4.Alternative Explanation to Nuclear Fusion
5.Alternative explanation to Quantum Electrodynamics
6.Einstein-Rosen wormhole view
7.Vision of the infinite worlds of Everett
8.Implications about String Theory and Supersymmetry
9.Julian Barbour’s view of the
Big Bang and quantum entanglement
10.Vision on the Megauniverse that respects CPT symmetry
11.Big Bang from a black hole created in a previous Universe, a black hole that
respects that resolves the so-called "Information Paradox", through
the "Holographic Principle"
12.Cooper's Vision on Superconductivity and Pairs
13.Reversal of the state of a photon (experiment done at
the University of Austria)
14.Joint action dark energy – dark matter of the
Antiuniverse to cause distortions of space – time in our Universe. Application
of the Maldacena Conjecture
15.Artificial nuclear fusion vs solar fusion and quantum
tunneling
16.Alternative to the accepted nucleogenesis of the Big
Bang
17.Levitation explained
18.Alternative explanation of how to extract energy from
vacuum
19.Magnetic resonance, entanglement and state of
consciousness in our brain
20.Journeys to the past
21.Black holes grow not only by the matter they absorb,
but above all by the dark energy of the vacuum
ANNEXES
Annex 1. Schrödinger’s wave equation, applied to the
case of a quantum tunnel
Annex 2. Wave-particle duality, Louis de Broglie's
postulate and wavelengths of an electron and a baseball
Annex 3. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for
energy-time
Annex 4. Double-slit experiment
Annex 5. Feynman road integral
Annex 6. Types of virtual particles
Annex 7. Loop quantum gravity
Annex 8. Vacuum energy. The greatest discordance in the
history of science
Annex 9. Einstein's Equation of General Relativity
Annex 10. Dirac equation
Annex 11. Alcubierre metric
Annex 12. Key steps of evolution
Annex 13. Quantum mechanics in biological processes
Annex 14. Quantum tunneling to achieve nuclear fusion in
the Sun
Annex 15. Is our consciousness quantum?
Annex 16. String Theory and Supersymmetry
Annex 17. Primordial black holes, MACHOs and WIMMPs
Annex 18. Maldacena Conjecture
/ AdS/CFT Correspondence: Equivalence
between a string theory or supergravity defined in a certain class of anti-de Sitter space and a conformal field theory
defined at its boundary with dimension less by one.
Annex 19. A photon has gone back in time.
Annex 20. Cosmological Model of the Big Bang Lambda-CDM
(Cold Dark Matter)
1. Summary: The quantum entanglement, explained through an approach that integrates Alcubierre Metric, Maldacena Conjecture and Barbour Parallel Universes
Starting point: a few key equations
Einstein's General Relativity field equations:
Schrödinger wave equation for a free particle:
The change is
instantaneous, even though both particles are thousands of light-years
apart.
Heisenberg's
principle of indeterminacy
It is permissible to draw large amounts of energy from the vacuum if done during infinitesimal times, without violating this principle.
Dirac equation:
It is the version
of the Schrödinger wave equation that considers relativistic effects.
Predicts the
existence of antimatter.
Feynman
road integral:
https://naukas.com/2018/06/13/ultimo-articulo-hawking-la-naukas-iii-propuesta-ausencia-frontera/
It affirms that
our reality is the sum of all possible realities.
My Vision
That
instantaneous communication that occurs when two particles are entangled can
only be possible because "something" is greatly distorting
space-time.
Alcubierre found
some solutions of the Theory of Relativity that, through enormous distortions
of space-time, allow travel WITH space, not through space, without violating
the maximum limit of speed allowed, the speed of light.
For me, the
fundamental conclusion of this paper is the following: through the Alcubierre
Metric, taking out the enormous amount of negative energy we need from the
vacuum, we curve space-time enough for the instantaneous action that takes
place between entangled particles that are separated by enormous distances.
We take those
large amounts of energy out of the vacuum (they are negative energies and
masses) during infinitesimal times, which allows us not to violate Heisenberg's
Uncertainty Principle.
The energies
that, in Alcubierre's metric, we need to take out of the vacuum to travel NOT
through space but WITH space:
Energy density needed to arrive at the
Alcubierre Metric:
This energy
density, taken directly from the equations of General Relativity, is negative
and therefore requires "exotic matter" to cause the deformations of
space-time sought.
In summary,
quantum entanglement is produced by drawing from the vacuum the negative energy
density needed by the Alcubierre Metric.
When something
needs to be transmitted to the rest of the entangled particles, the Alcubierre
energy of the vacuum in the dark Universe is used, which causes a great
deformation of space-time in our Universe, allowing the instantaneous
transmission of information between the entangled particles, regardless of the
distance between them.
The energy we
draw from the vacuum is "dark energy."
This energy that
we draw from the vacuum creates an enormous gravity, but of sign of repulsion.
The vacuum has
created a gravitational repulsion.
This gravity has created
a huge warping of space-time, according to Einstein's equations.
In the state of
quantum entanglement, we enter the conditions of the Alcubierre metric:
-There is possibility of instantaneous
steps in space (without violating the speed of light as a universal limit)
-There are possibilities to cross the
potential barriers of quantum tunnels
The next question
is: what is that world of the vacuum like, which contains that
anti-gravitational energy?
My view is that
we are facing a black hole that has been created by the collapse of a previous
Universe.
But it is NOT an
infinitesimal black hole; it obeys the rules of the Theory of Loop Quantum
Gravity and, therefore, has a finite radius.
What other
qualities would that predecessor black hole of our Universe have?
First, I think it
would be more accurate if we call that black hole "the Universe
before" our Big Bang.
Another
possibility would be that this "dark Universe" was created in the
instants immediately prior to the Big Bang of the Universe of particles that we
know (that would suppose that there really were two Big Bangs, one of that dark
Universe and another that of the ordinary matter that we know).
In any case, the
idea of a Big Crunch of a previous Universe has very attractive connotations:
-Following Julian Barbour’s theory, in that
previous Universe time may have gone backwards.
-We are talking about concepts of
thermodynamic time, that is, the one related to entropy
-According to Julian Barbour, in a universe
where time runs backwards, entropy (i.e., disorder) decreases and, therefore,
complexity increases.
-In Julian Barbour's parallel universe, the
direction of time is dominated by gravity, not thermodynamics.
-In
short, that Universe prior to our Big Bang would have reached phases / states
of great complexity.
On the other
hand, Quantum Mechanics tells us that information (that is, quantum states)
cannot disappear.
We know, from the
Holographic Theory, that the information inside a black hole can be reflected
in the event horizon (remember that we are talking about a black hole of finite
radius, NOT infinitesimal therefore)
In short, we
would be facing a black hole that contains all the quantum information of the
previous Universe.
In short,
following Barbour, it would be a mirror Universe to ours, where thermodynamic
time went backwards, complexity reached maximum levels and the information of
everything that happened to it is recorded in its event horizon.
What can this
previous Universe be formed of? antimatter would be a good candidate, which
would allow CPT symmetry to be fulfilled?
Candidate
particles that exist in that Universe: the SUSY particles of Supersymmetry, the
antimatter neutrinos, the Majorana particle (which, as we know, is matter and
antimatter at the same time)
In any case, to
cause these gravitational effects in our Universe, it must necessarily be very
heavy particles.
Summary of this
alternative Big Bang:
In a previous
Universe, all matter, energy and information accumulate in a black hole
with NO infinitesimal radius (according to loop quantum gravity).
In that black
hole all the information / complexity of the previous Universe accumulates-à the information has NOT been lost, it can
NOT be lost, according to the laws of Quantum Mechanics
Starting point of
our Big Bang-à we start
from a primordial black hole, which is created before the Big Bang and not a
little after (according to the theory of the double Big Bang)
We also start
from all the information / complexity of the previous Universe, recorded in the
finite Schwarzschild radius of the black hole that will be the father of our
Big Bang.
Therefore, before
the Big Bang of our conventional matter Universe there was a Universe with the
following characteristics:
-Maximum energy,
in the form of dark energy
-Maximum
information-à all
quantum states/lived experiences of the previous Universe are recorded in the
finite Schwarzschild radius
Possibility:
Evolution may have taken key steps by tapping into information recorded at the
event horizon of the dark/earlier Universe
This previous
Universe still exists.
The communication
between this dark Universe and ours takes place through gravity, although to be
more precise we should say that it is through antigravity.
That antigravity,
created in the dark Universe but transmitted to our Universe of ordinary
matter, is what originates the quantum entanglement affects that we see.
Last but not
least, if we found a relationship between "what calls dark energy to act”
and space-time, we would be facing the initial equation of our Big Bang, of all
Physics we know.
Perfect
hypothesis to explain this first equation: the Maldacena Conjecture, which
relates General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics through a duality between an
anti-De Sitter Space-Time and Conformal Fields
Based on this
partnership, we could explore two ways of working:
-Quantum
entanglement produces distortions of space-time
-Distortions of
space-time produce quantum entanglement
Possible
cause-effect dynamics of this duality:
-A quantum mind
and/or a Universe with a high degree of complexity, capable of originating
states of entanglement, produces distortions of space-time.
-These distortions of space-time would be
capable of producing entanglements in the new Big Bang of ordinary matter.
-That complexity
may come from a previous Universe, collapsed into a black hole of finite radius
and, therefore, not infinitesimal.
-That
complexity/solutions would have been etched into the event horizon of that
black hole.
Final conclusion:
the information recorded in the black hole of a previous Universe is the origin
of the space-time present in our Universe, which governs all existing
interactions between ordinary matter.
2.Possible
ways in which our Universe (that of ordinary matter) can "ask for
help" from the Universe of the quantum vacuum
The vacuum is full of quantum fluctuations.
These
fluctuations create a particle and its antiparticle, long enough for
Heisenberg's Indeterminacy Principle to be fulfilled.
Entangled
particles emit virtual photons (quantum electrodynamics)
The virtual
particles are there, accompanying the real particleà the virtual particles appear and
disappear continuously, accompanying the entangled particle (Feynman diagrams)
According to the
Theory of Supersymmetry, SUSY, for every particle in our Universe there is
another supersymmetric particle, much heavier than it.
My conclusion is
that these supersymmetric particles of the dark Universe are what cause the
great distortions of space-time in our Universe that cause the instantaneous
action that exists between entangled particles in our Universe to occur.
Another
alternative explanation to supersymmetric particles would be that this
space-time distortion action in our Universe is caused by antimatter neutrinos
that separated from the ordinary matter Universe at the dawn of the Big Bang
(that antimatter in a separate Universe would be necessary to explain CPT
symmetry).
At a certain
moment, when the measurement occurs in an entangled particle, its virtual
particles cause the Alcubierre Metric to come into actionà they take out an enormous negative energy
from the vacuum, deform space-time radically and send instantaneous information
to the rest of the entangled particles so that they collapse in the
complementary state to that measured in the original particle.
That information
that is sent is instantaneous, regardless of the distance at which the other
entangled particles areà Version: particle A is instantaneously
where particle B- both are in the same space and collapse in coordination.
Same explanation
for quantum tunneling---> we draw energy from the vacuum, via Alcubierre
metric conditions, to jump the potential barrier.
3.Alternative
explanation of the double-slit experiment:
-The particle,
entering conditions of the Alcubierre Metric, is in both slits at the same time
The particle,
entering those conditions, is instantaneously before and after the grid of the
double slit.
4.Alternative
Explanation to Nuclear Fusion
Schrödinger’s
wave equation, for the case of a quantum tunnel, has as solution:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbasees/quantum/barr.html
If we manage to
get the proton trying to enter the nucleus into entangled conditions, the
following will happen: Alcubierre metricà instantaneous change of position by
curvature of space-time.
The proton can
enter the nucleus by two methods:
-It crosses the
barrier of electromagnetic force in the same way that the tunnel effect works
It does not pass
through the space defined by the barrierà it is now at point A (outside the
barrier) and because it is in Alcubierre metric conditions, instantly the
proton appears inside the nucleus, at point B
5.Alternative
explanation to Quantum Electrodynamics
In the accepted
theory, between two electrons virtual photons are transmitted to repel each
other.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbasees/Particles/expar.html
My Vision
Let's imagine
that the virtual photons are there (as we know, the vacuum is not empty, but
full of virtual particles)
Electron A is
changing the quantum state of the virtual photons it encounters in its path.
Virtual photons
cause the conditions of the Alcubierre Metric to appear - the virtual photons
altered by the passage of electron A arrive instantaneously where the electron
B is à the virtual photons do NOT move from the range of
the electrons and communicate with each other their quantum states through the
torsion of space-time originated by the Alcubierre Metric
More
direct/revolutionary explanation:
All electrons in
the Universe are entangled— sometimes entanglement collapses and under certain
conditions it holds. The virtual photons of electron A are there, accompanying
the real electron.
At a certain
moment, the virtual particles involved cause the Alcubierre Metric to come into
action-> they take an enormous negative energy out of the vacuum, deform
space-time and send information to the rest of the virtual particles of the
electrons that may be in the path of electron A
The entangled
particles (the virtual photons) of electron B receive the information
instantaneously and repulsion occurs.
All electrons in
the Universe (whose properties are identical) are likely to be able to be in
entangled conditions.
6.Einstein-Rosen
wormhole view
In the original explanation,
at the center of a black hole the singularity can become a bridge leading from
the center of the black hole to another place in the Universe.
In the
mathematics provided by Rosen the singularity does not reach zero size or
infinite density
Kip Thorne
(friend and advisor of Carl Sagan for his film "Contact") explained
the mathematical solutions of the equation of General Relativity to make the
black hole passable.
https://www.konradlorenz.edu.co/blog/que-son-los-agujeros-de-gusano/
To keep the ends
of the wormhole open and keep it stable, it is necessary to provide an enormous
amount of "exotic energy".
My Vision
The entangled
particles are linked by the Alcubierre-> Metric by quantum wormholes that
are between us and that are NOT the same as those in the distant galaxies of
the Universe.
The
black/wormholes responsible for the Alcubierre Metric are among us and
"live" in the dark Universe.
At the quantum
scale, there is a vacuum with negative energy that keeps viable and stable
wormholes open.
7.Vision of
the infinite worlds of Everett
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universos_paralelos
According to
Wallace, these worlds are emergent structures, that is, "they are not
directly defined in the language of microphysics, but that does not mean that
they are somehow independent of the underlying physics."
My Vision
Those emerging
worlds/structures inhabit/are in the dark Universe.
The dark Universe
that causes the Alcubierre Metric is formed by structures / large amounts of
virtual particles.
These virtual
particle structures could be the infinite Everett worlds / universes-> the
photon going to the double slit creates, below, in a vacuum, an Everett world
that defines the outcome of the experiment.
8.Implications
about String Theory and Supersymmetry
Supersymmetry, a
prediction of string theory, says that all the subatomic particles we know,
such as electrons, photons, and gravitons (do they exist?) must have a much
heavier equivalent, which are called "S particles".
http://www.nocierreslosojos.com/teoria-cuerdas/
The predicted
S-particles are so incredibly heavy that, to this day, particle accelerators do
not detect them.
My Vision
The dark universe
is formed by S---> particles that create the Alcubierre Metricà S particles are responsible for the
distortion of space-time that gives rise to entanglement conditions.
Particles, in our
world, become entangled.
Underneath, in
the dark Universe the corresponding S particles achieve entanglement.
What SUSY
postulates (Supersymmetry) is that each particle of the Standard Model
corresponds to a supersymmetric partner that has the opposite spin.
That is, for each
fermion (leptons and quarks), which have semi-integer spin, it corresponds to a
boson (which has integer spin) and for each boson (which has integer spin)
corresponds to u fermion (which has semi-integer spin)
Therefore, the
number of particles predicted by SUSY would be double that in the Standard
Model.
As we have said
before, S particles are incredibly heavy and would be the ones in the dark
Universe.
9.Julian Barbour’s
view of the Big Bang and quantum entanglement
Bases of the
Theory
According to
Julian Barbour, the direction of time is governed by gravity and NOT by
thermodynamics.
https://www.abc.es/ciencia/abci-bang-pudo-fabricar-futuros-diferentes-202103070858_noticia.html
The Big Bang would
simply be the state with the lowest level of chaos and entropy (it would come
from a previous Rebound)
From there, two
Universes are created, one in which we live in which time moves forward (chaos
and entropy increase) and another mirror Universe where time moves backwards,
that is, where chaos decreases, complexity increases and entropy decreases--à in this Universe does not dominate
entropy but the enormous forces of gravity.
My Vision
This second
Universe is the dark Universe, which distorts space-time, creating the
conditions of the Alcubierre Metricà is the one that produces the
entanglements and tunneling effects in our Universe.
Conclusion of
SUSY particles and Barbour's Big Bang: the dark Universe is made up of S
particles (SUSY) and walks towards complexityà seeks complexity, helps complexity
whenever our Universe "asks for it"
Simpler
explanation: two Big Bangs are created, one for ordinary matter and one for
dark matter.
Big Bang of dark
matter creates primordial black hole.
In the Big Bang
of ordinary matter time goes forward (order decreases) and in that of dark
energy/dark matter time goes backwards (complexity increases)
10.Vision
on the Mega universe that respects CPT symmetry
Bases of the
Theory
Our Universe
would have an antimatter companion on the other side of the Big Bang:
https://www.epe.es/es/tendencias-21/20220907/universo-tendria-companero-antimateria-lado-75131498
That second
universe would be like a twin of ours, but like a mirror image: everything it
contains is inverted with respect to ours. Even time, instead of moving towards
the future, does so towards the past (although for the purposes of that
universe we are the ones who go the other way around).
If that model
were confirmed, it would mean that the universe we know and have studied is
only one part of a much more complex entity of a complex mega universe, formed
on the one hand by our universe and, on the other hand, by another inverse
universe.
The authors of
this research, Latham Boyle, Kieran Finn and Neil Turok, from the Perimeter
Institute for Theoretical Physics in Canada, have reached this conclusion by
delving into the weaknesses of the current Cosmological Model.
One of these
weaknesses is a small unresolved contradiction: if our Universe is continuously
expanding, it would theoretically be violating a fundamental symmetry of
nature, called CPT symmetry (for the initials of Charge, Parity and Time).
That symmetry indicates
that if the charges, parity, and time of a particle interaction are reversed,
that interaction will always behave in the same way (it will be symmetric).
The researchers
believe that this is not the case in the Universe we see around us, in which
time moves forward as space expands, and in which there is more matter than
antimatter. However, that symmetry is fulfilled if this Anti universe also
exists.
In the complex mega
universe, CPT symmetry would be fulfilled because in one of its manifestations
(the Anti universe) not only does time pass in a direction opposite to ours,
but it is also dominated by antimatter. The mirror image of both twin universes
compensates for possible mismatches.
These authors
consider that this symmetric model of a complex mega universe, composed of two
mirror universes, is not only consistent with the known history of cosmic
expansion, but also provides a direct explanation for dark matter.
On the one hand,
that complex mega universe, composed of two opposite universes, can expand and
fill with particles without the need for a long period of rapid expansion known
as inflation (which perhaps we have mistakenly attributed to our universe), so
it would not violate the basic symmetry of nature (CPT).
On the other
hand, this complex universe also solves the mystery of dark matter: it would be
nothing more than a new type of neutrino, not yet observed, which can only
exist in the "other" universe.
My Vision
This Anti
universe, composed of very heavy particles, neutrinos and/or S particles, is
the one that distorts our space-time through the Alcubierre Metric.
This mirror Anti
universe interacts with our Universe through gravity and would explain the
paradox of the Hubble constant, which indicates that the Universe is expanding
faster than calculated in the current Cosmological Model.
11.Big Bang
from a black hole created in a previous Universe, black hole that respects the
so-called "Information Paradox", through the "Holographic
Principle"
Bases of the
Theory
The holographic
principle: the most beautiful advance towards quantum gravity:
The
thermodynamics of black holes arose because it was necessary to assign entropy
to them within a proper theoretical framework: if they did not possess it, it
was possible to charge the entire entropy of the Universe by throwing things
into a black hole.
It arises by
combining black holes, determinism, and quantum gravity.
Hawking said that
what black holes radiated was completely random.
This
interpretation of Hawking was NOT respectful of the determinism of the wave
function of Quantum Mechanics.
The wave function
is deterministicà if you
know the wave function of a system you can deterministically calculate its
evolution following the Schrödinger equation, to estimate how this function
will be some time later.
Moreover, the
wave function propagates all the information in the quantum system, so it is
NOT conceivable that it is destructible.
In Statistical
Mechanics, when we talk about the entropy of a system, we are counting the
amount of information we have about that object / system.
Bekenstein à the entropy of black holes is an
entropy due to quantum entanglement.
Particles outside
the black hole and those inside become entangled when the black hole formed.
Bekenstein's
formula
S: entropy of the
black hole
A: area of the black
hole
Proposal of the Holographic Principle: what we see happening on the horizon of a black hole is a perfect representation of what happens insideà we would be seeing the interior of the hole without having to enter it.
Restriction: a
certain physical volume of our Universe can NOT contain more information than
can be encoded at its boundary
What would be the
minimum unit of information, the cosmic bit?
A is the Planck area.
With this
reasoning, the proposal was that the horizon of the black hole contained one
bit of information for each small enclosure of size equal to the Planck area on
its surface. A black hole storing three million bits of quantum information
would have to have an area of three million Planck areas, which are tiny.
If we go to a
very simple case, such as a black hole of one centimeter radius (which is what
the Earth's would measure if it were compressed), the information it could
store would be:
To calculate the area of the hole we have used the formula of the area of a sphere.
This is
outrageous. A normal computer stores no more than 10 raised to 13 bits, a
practically zero amount compared to what we have left. The Earth itself, in
principle, requires fewer bits of information to be described than that amount.
Let's take
another example raised by Susskind himself, filling the entire observable
universe with books. If we consider each character in a book with one bit, a
book has approximately 6000 bits per cubic centimeter. The size of the
observable universe, on the other hand, is 4 by 10 raised to 80 cubic meters.
All that barbarity of books could be welcomed as bits on the border of a black
hole of just 7 kilometers:
Consequently, the information in the universe is very poorly concentrated compared to what it might be.
The proposal of
't Hooft and Susskind is known as the holographic principle because it treats
the interior of the black hole as if it were a hologram encoded on its surface,
in the same way that in science fiction films such as Star Wars the three-dimensional
images they use to communicate are encoded in the plane that generates them.
Within the
proposal, the axiom is included that in the universe in a volume delimited by a
certain area there can be no greater amount of information than a black hole
would have with that area and that, analogously, given a certain amount of
information can not be compressed more than a black hole would compress. If
there is something in the cosmos with a higher density of information than a
black hole, the proposal would have to be revised, at least by reducing the
size of the bits so that they enter more in less place.
Finally, thanks
to the holographic principle, paradoxes ceased to exist in the black hole. The
information is not lost because it is constantly recorded at the boundary of
the black hole and the two observers come to the same conclusions.
Leonard Susskind
threw himself into the adventure explaining this proposal in his article
"The universe as a hologram."
Holographic
determinism:
From the above it
is obvious that the paradox of information disappears. Wave functions propagate
and evolve deterministically encoded on the horizon of the black hole for the
external observer, while the internal observer will see things enter and later
come out fired at some point as thermal radiation, but without having lost
their identity.
My Vision
In a previous
Universe, all matter, energy, and information accumulate in a black hole
with NO infinitesimal radius (according to loop quantum gravity).
In that black
hole all the information / complexity of the previous Universe accumulates the
information has NOT been lost, it can NOT be lost, according to the laws of
Quantum Mechanics
Starting point of
our Big Bangà we start
from a primordial black hole, which is created before the Big Bang and not a
little later (according to the theory of the double Big Bang)
We also start
from all the information / complexity of the previous Universe, recorded in the
finite Schwarzschild radius of the black hole that will be the father of our
Big Bang.
As a summary,
before the Big Bang of our Universe there were:
-Maximum energy,
in the form of dark energy
-Maximum
informationà all
quantum states/lived experiences of the previous Universe are recorded in the
finite Schwarzschild radius
What happens when
our Big Bang begins?
-All elementary
particles are created
-Nucleosynthesis
/ nuclear fusions occur without reaching millions of degrees à we pass protons from outside the hydrogen
nucleus to the interior, by quantum tunneling
How does this
phenomenon of creation occur in our Big Bang? the information of the black hole
knows how to create a new Universe and the energy carries it out with the
powerful tool of the enormous distortion of space-time that takes place if we
enter conditions of the Alcubierre Metric.
Who is the real
actor of how will be the evolution of the Big Bang that has just been created?
the information / experience accumulated in the black hole / end of the times
of the previous Universe?
In the previous
Universe, the arrow of thermodynamic time went backwards (Barbour's parallel universe)
à that
universe was moving towards minimum entropy, maximum complexity.
Finally: these
distortions of space-time must have triggered gravitational waves that should
be observable.
12.Cooper's
Vision on Superconductivity and Pairs
Basis of the
theory
Instead of the
classical explanation of changes in the ion lattice-> those electrons in the
pair take energy from the vacuum, enter the entanglement phase, the two
electrons respond to the same wave equationà each of them knows at each moment what
the other does and their transit through the lattice of positive ions is much
easier than what they would have found separately.
My Vision
"Electrons
forming Cooper pairs seek help in the dark Universe"à enter conditions of the Alcubierre metric.
In addition, the
dark Universe gives you the keys to transit easier through the network of
positive ions.
And this is
because the dark Universe is made to allow transits towards complexity
(Barbour's Big Bang), to seek more complex solutions.
Finally, this
request for help, this entanglement causes all the Cooper pairs of the
superconductor to be entangledà the formation of Cooper pairs takes place
simultaneously throughout the conductor, so the electrical conduction becomes
the "march of a small army of Cooper Pairs that there is no one to stop
it"
13.Reversal
of the state of a photon (experiment done at the University of Austria)
Bases of the
Theory
If we run back
time, we could know all the states that this photon has had throughout its
history-à we could
reach the moment it was created, near the Big Bang
To make the
photon go backwards, we do it with "universal rewinding" protocols.
My Vision
We help ourselves
from the dark Universe, where time goes backwards, order increases and entropy
decreases.
The state of the
electron will go backwards if we manage to enter distortions of space-time
produced by the Alcubierre metric.
If we manage to
reverse time, that is, the states of a photon, could we achieve the same with a
cell? --> we would revert its adult cell state to that of a pluripotent cell.
Same dynamic for
evolutionary leaps? à
instead of struggle / competition in evolutionary processesà cooperation, which is achieved by
"asking for help" from the dark Universe, the primordial hole, the
quantum vacuum, which is governed by a backward tempo, by the transition to
greater complexity, by the creation of more complex structures.
14.Joint
action dark energy – dark matter of the Anti-universe to cause distortions of
space – time in our Universe. Application of the Maldacena Conjecture
Let's not forget
that mass is nothing more than condensed energy.
Dark energy, when
it wants to create a constant source of antigravitational repulsion, creates a
primordial black hole of negative matter, but when that dark Universe is
required in a timely manner so that its energy, for example, helps ordinary
matter to enter entangled conditions or to pass through a quantum tunnelà it goes directly to dark energy and does
NOT use the primordial black hole.
Thus, the
required action would be more flexible and punctual: I go wherever there is
entanglement or quantum tunnels or double slit, I do the punctual help / the
punctual action and when my mission ends (when the entanglement is undone) I,
dark energy, disappear and go to another place where my services are required.
Thus, there would
be point jets of dark energy, which would produce, for example, these tunnels.
The world would
thus be simplerà dark
energy, directly, is what produces the distortions of space-time.
The equation of General Relativity relates matter
and space-time.
An equation would have to be found to relate dark
energy and space-time.
Perfect hypothesis to explain this first equation that
would originate all the Physics we know: the Maldacena Canon, which relates General Relativity
and Quantum Mechanics through a duality between an Espace and anti De Sitter and the Fields Compliant
Based on this partnership, we could explore two
ways of working:
-Quantum entanglement produces distortions of
space-time
-Distortions of space-time produce quantum
entanglement
Possible cause-effect dynamics of this duality:
-A quantum mind and/or a Universe with a high
degree of complexity, capable of originating states of entanglement, produces distortions
of space-time
These distortions of space-time would be capable
of producingentanglements in the new Big Bang of ordinary matter.
-That complexity may come from a previous
Universe, collapsed into a black hole of finite radius and, therefore, not
infinitesimal.
That complexity/solutions would have been etched
into the event horizon of that black hole.
Conclusion: the information recorded in the black
hole of a previous Universe is the origin of the space-time present in our
Universe, which governs all existing interactions between ordinary matter.
15.Artificial
nuclear fusion vs solar fusion and quantum tunneling
Current theory
Nuclear fusion in
the Sun is carried out only by overcoming electromagnetic repulsion with
millions of degrees of temperature and immense pressure.
Astrophysicists
know that this is not enough and that in the final stages only protons manage
to enter the nucleus of hydrogen atoms via tunneling.
Currently,
nuclear fusion experiments being carried out around the world are based on the
first concept cited.
My Vision
We should try to
cause tunneling so we don't have to reach those extreme temperatures.
How to cause this
quantum tunneling? via torsion of space - time / Alcubierre metric
For there to be
torsion of space 7 time we should put in the plasma the conditions of
entanglement----> we must "call dark energy"
Dark energy helps
the proton outside the nucleus, via Alcubierre metric conditions, pass the
potential barrier and enter the hydrogen nucleus.
Summary: The
nuclear fusion that occurs in the Sun and other stars occurs because the
protons that want to enter the nucleus "ask for help" to a primordial
black hole that was formed long before the Sun
16.Alternative
to the accepted nucleogenesis of the Big
Bang
Human beings,
science, could create quiet Big Bangs by resorting, for the different stages of
nucleogenesis of the elements, to "aids" of dark energy / primordial
black holes / distortions of space-time
17.Levitation
explained
First
explanation: if we are in conditions of superconductivity, levitation will
appear:
Meissner
effect
The Meissner
effect, also called the Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect, consists of the total
disappearance of the magnetic field flux inside a superconducting material below its critical
temperature. It was
discovered by Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933 by measuring the flux distribution on the outside of samples of lead and
tin cooled below their critical temperature in the presence of a magnetic
field.
Meissner and
Ochsenfeld found that the magnetic field is completely canceled inside the
superconducting material and that magnetic field lines are ejected from the
interior of the material, so that it behaves like a perfect diamagnetic material .
The Meissner effect is one of the defining properties of superconductivity and
its discovery served to deduce that the appearance of superconductivity is a phase
transition to a different
state.
The expulsion of
the magnetic field of the superconducting material allows the formation of
curious effects, such as the levitation of a magnet on a superconducting
material at low temperature shown in the figure.
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efecto_Meissner
My Vision
We overcome the
force of gravity by resorting to dark energy, which is antigravity.
This antigravity
is caused by distortions of space-time originating in the dark Universe.
The dark universe
communicates with ours by making entanglements between particles and providing
anti-gravitational energy to lift things, such as dust particles in the
"Interstellar" room.
18.Alternative
explanation of how to extract energy from vacuum
The option would
be to go directly to the vacuum searching, by method similar to the Casimir
effect, but taking advantage of the antigravitational effect generated by the
Alcubierre Metric to remove from the vacuum the particle of each pair generated
in these fluctuations and bring it to the space-time of our Universe.
More powerful
option: harness dark energy/space-time distortion to pass electrons of any
chemical element from a stable orbit to outermost orbits-- the electron would
move from orbit 1 (space A) to orbit 3 (space B) by distortion of space-time
produced by our "call" to dark energy.
Then, as always,
that electron, being unstable in an excited orbit, would return to the original
orbit emitting electromagnetic energy (photons) .... that would have come out
of the vacuum.
Final note. If we
do this for many electrons, from different atoms of the same element, we can
get all the electrons to be synchronized, and go down all at once to their
additional stable orbits--- we would be able to reproduce the laser-effect
(much more energy, generated by synchronized electromagnetic waves) ... and
everything would have come out of the vacuum.
19.Magnetic
resonance, entanglement and state of consciousness in our brain
According to a
BBC report, David López, Doctor of Neurosciences and his team, when a patient
who is having an MRI is awake, the signals returned by the human body are
stronger when the patient falls asleep.
The "quantum
brain," the bold theory that may help solve the mystery of how human
consciousness arises:
https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-64065872
David affirms
that during the Resonance the protons are entangled "because there is a function that is mediating that entanglement and that function
that acts as mediator is consciousness"
He continues:
"We can't measure it directly, but we measure protons."
The scientist
explained to BBC Mundo that "quantum gravity is a purely theoretical world
that has not yet been explained experimentally, which wants to unite two
theories that a priori are not compatible (quantum mechanics and the theory of
relativity). For this they have created the figure of the graviton, which is
something that is not known how it is but that would be the bridge between the
two theories. "
My Vision
This experiment
indicates a key fact: consciousness influences the spin state of the protons of
the nuclei of the water molecules of our body, which means that there is a
direct and demonstrable mind-body connection, through the result of the
Resonance.
It is not necessary to resort to the existence
of the graviton to explain this relationship between consciousness and
entanglement.
If this
relationship exists, and following the basic argument of this document, this will
mean that consciousness is the one that "calls" the dark Universe,
which creates the distortion of space-time that causes the entanglement of the
protons of the water molecules of the body, whose decay originates the signals
detected in the Resonances.
More enigmatic
conclusion: is it consciousness that controls the dark energy of the Universe
of the quantum vacuum?
According to this
approach, we should think of an equation of the Big Bang of our Universe in the
following terms:
Left side of the
equation: consciousness = right side: strong distortions of space-time
Next equation:
the General Theory of Relativity-> space-time tells matter how to move (to
paraphrase John Wheeler)
Both Universes
will be communicated through gravitational waves (as proposed by physicist Kip
Thorne in Interstellar)
The effects on
our Universe would be antigravitational forces created by the dark Universe.
How would this
mind-cell connection of our body be realized?
My Vision
Consciousness,
under certain conditions, creates a state of entanglement of all neuropeptides
in our body.
For this, it has
been possible to activate the dark Universe, which through the distortion of
space-time, is ultimately responsible for this entanglement.
Consciousness
reaches a state of entanglement only with certain thoughts, for example, when
we are in a state of inspiration, intense meditation, maximum urgency, etc.
20.Journeys
to the past
My vision
Quantum states,
according to Quantum Mechanics, are not lost.
Each quantum
state is a world that has existed.
The worlds
originated by each of these key thoughts are still there, in the brain, in the
memory.
Under this prism,
an "effect" world (a concrete thought) can exist perfectly before a
world causes it.
This would mean
you can travel through time: through an "effect" thought I can
investigate the causes that made it possibleàI see the effect and investigate the
possible causes-> I thinkà
Alcubierre effectà
instantaneous travel between different quantum states that have occurredà travel back in time.
We do not travel
to the past as people but as quantum states that have occurred (and therefore
have been recorded in our brain) in our past.
21.Black
holes grow not only by the matter they absorb, but above all by the dark energy
of the vacuum
Black holes
grow by the dark energy they pull out of the vacuum.
They discover the
ultimate source of dark energy, black holes:
https://ecoosfera.com/sci-innovacion/energia-oscura-fuente-agujeros-negros/?utm_content=cmp-true
Until now it was
believed that black holes were constantly growing thanks to the immense amounts
of matter, they devour due to their gravitational fields, but the observations
of Farrah and Croker suggest that it is actually dark energy that generates
this growth. According to their
conclusions, black holes contain
vacuum energy and are coupled to the expansion of the Universe, increasing
in mass as the cosmos expands. According to this new research, the measured
amount of dark energy in the cosmos can be explained by the vacuum energy
accumulated in black holes.
"This
measurement, which explains why the Universe is accelerating now, offers a
beautiful insight into the real force of Einstein's gravity."
My Vision
Impressive
discovery, made from observations of supermassive black holes living within a
group of elliptical galaxies in the early Universe.
It only remains for me to add there is dark energy in all its splendor, in those primordial black holes.
ANNEXES
Annex 1. Schrödinger’s
wave equation, applied to the case of a quantum tunnel.
Blog: "The
tunnel effect in detail"
https://tunelcuantico.home.blog/2019/02/16/el-efecto-tunel-a-detalle/
Schrödinger’s
wave equation:
Schrödinger wave equation for each of the three regions:
Solutions of wave functions in regions I and III:
It is an oscillatory expression: they are waves.
Solution in
Region II:
It is not an
oscillatory expression.
Annex 2. Wave-particle duality, Louis de Broglie's postulate and wavelengths of an electron and a baseball
See post
"Wave-particle duality.”
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualidad_onda_corp%C3%BAsculo
Wave-particle
duality, also called wave-particle duality is a quantum phenomenon, well proven empirically, by which many particles can exhibit typical wave behaviors in
some experiments while appearing as compact particles and localized in other
experiments. Given this dual behavior, it is typical of mechanoquantic objects, where
some particles can present very localized interactions and as waves exhibit the
phenomenon of interference.
According to classical physics there are clear differences between wave and particle. A particle has a definite position in
space and has mass while a wave extends in space characterized by having a
definite velocity and zero mass.
Wave-particle
duality is currently considered to be a "concept of quantum mechanics
according to which there are no fundamental differences between particles and
waves: particles can behave like waves and vice versa." (Stephen Hawking, 2001)
This is a fact
proven experimentally on multiple occasions. It was introduced by Louis-Victor de
Broglie, a French
physicist of the early twentieth century. In 1924 in his doctoral thesis, inspired by experiments on electron diffraction,
he proposed the existence of matter waves, that is to say that all matter had a
wave associated with it. This revolutionary idea, based on the analogy that radiation had an
associated particle, a property already demonstrated at the time, did not
arouse great interest, despite the correctness of its proposals, since it had
no evidence of occurring. However, Einstein recognized its importance and five years later,
in 1929, de Broglie received the Nobel Prize in Physics
for his work.
His work said
that the wavelength of
the wave associated with matter was:
Wavelengths of
the electron and a baseball:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbasees/debrog.html
If you explore
the wavelength values of ordinary macroscopic objects like baseballs, you will
find that their De Broglie wavelengths are ridiculously small. Comparing the
power of ten for wavelength, will show that the wavelengths of ordinary objects
are much smaller than a nucleus. The implication is that for ordinary objects,
no evidence of their wave nature will ever be seen, and for all practical
purposes they can be regarded as particles.
Annex 3.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for energy-time
See post:
"Heisenberg's indeterminacy relation":
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaci%C3%B3n_de_indeterminaci%C3%B3n_de_Heisenberg
This form is used in quantum mechanics to explore the consequences of the formation of virtual particles, used to study the intermediate states of an interaction. This form of the indeterminacy principle is also used to study the concept of vacuum energy.
Annex 4.
Double-slit experiment
View PDF:
Sanchez-Jesus Double slit experiment interpretation:
Interpretation of
the double-slit experiment
For this
interpretation, we will consider particles as the vehicles (transmitters) of
energy but these particles are undetectable in themselves (they cannot interact
directly with anything). The interactions are not caused by the particle itself
but by the force carriers it emits (usually virtual photons). When a detector
detects an electron, it doesn't really "touch" it, or even
"see" it, but interacts with its electromagnetic field (with its
virtual photons). The electron is continuously emitting a cloud of virtual
photons surrounding it. The distribution of these photons is defined by a wave
function. The detector does not interact with the electron itself, but with its
virtual photon cloud. When the electron passes through one slit, its entire
photon cloud passes through the two slits so it interferes with itself and is
distributed according to the interference pattern. For one of these photons to
interact with the screen, the energy of the electron must be used at that point
– if that energy is not used there would simply be no interaction. If once an
interaction is made by a photon with the screen, another photon tried to
interact with the screen again, there would be no interaction since there would
be no more energy to allow that interaction to occur. So, every time we send an
electron, the screen will show only one point, but the total pattern will be
defined by the possibility of interaction (that is, by the distribution of the
photon cloud, once it has passed through the two slits, that is, by the interference
pattern). This means that the electron, the undetectable particle (but
transmitter of energy), could pass only through one slit – or maybe not, we
don't really care – but its chances of being detected actually go through both
slits (in the form of a cloud of photons that interferes with itself).
Annex 5.
Feynman road integral
How our reality
can be the sum of all possible realities:
https://culturacientifica.com/2023/04/04/integral-de-caminos/
The equation,
though adorning the pages of thousands of physics publications, is more of a
philosophy than a rigorous recipe. It suggests that our reality is a kind of
mixture, a sum, of all imaginable possibilities. But it doesn't tell
researchers exactly how to carry out the sum. So the scientific community has
spent decades developing an arsenal of approximation strategies to construct
and compute the integral for different quantum systems.
Approximations
work well enough that intrepid physicists like Loll now search for the ultimate
path integral: one that combines every conceivable form of space and time and
produces a universe shaped like ours as a net result. But in this quest to
prove that reality is in fact the sum of all possible realities, they face
profound confusion about what possibilities should go into the sum.
Annex 6.
Types of virtual particles
See entry:
"Virtual Particle"
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part%C3%ADcula_virtual
Virtual bosons
In the Standard Model, the fundamental forces are transmitted by the gauge bosons. When these bosons transmit forces they are
virtual particles, and they are created in a vacuum. Even in the most perfect vacuum, whether it is the one created in a laboratory, intergalactic
space, or the interatomic
vacuum, gauge bosons with an extremely brief existence are continuously
created. Quantum mechanics predicts that vacuum energy can never become
zero. The lowest possible energy of the vacuum is called zero-point energy, and it is precisely this low (though not
zero) energy that of virtual particles. This model of the vacuum is called a quantum vacuum.
The transmission
of forces between the different charges of each interaction is described by quantum
field theory, which
describes how virtual gauge bosons are transmitted through the polarized vacuum
between the real charges. 3 Some of these bosons also occur as real particles
in different phenomena:
- Photons are real particles when we observe them in
any type of electromagnetic radiation, such as light or X-rays. On the other hand, when they transmit the electromagnetic interaction between electrically
charged
particles, the photons are virtual.
- Real gluons
form so-called hybrid mesons and baryons, as well as gluballs
or gluonic balls (the existence of both is not yet
proven). The gluons that transmit the strong interaction between color-charged particles are virtual.
But a question
still to be resolved is whether all the massless gauge bosons that exist,
including those above exposed as real, are after all virtual. These particles
move at the speed of
light, and therefore,
according to Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, the
time it takes to propagate between any two points in the universe is
instantaneous from the point of view of the particles. So, being the emission
and absorption time instantaneous, would they be virtual?
Virtual
particle-antiparticle pairs
Not only gauge
bosons arise in the quantum vacuum, but also particle-antiparticle pairs; such as electron-positron pairs, or up quark-antiquark
up pairs, etc.
A particle with
its antiparticle must always be created, thus preserving the leptonic or baryonic number
(two quantum
numbers) of the universe. The particles that arise in this way are virtual because as soon as they
appear, they have so little energy that they instantly annihilate each
other.
These virtual
pairs are used as an explanatory scheme to justify that the zero-point
energy of the vacuum is
not strictly zero. In addition, Hawking
radiation can receive an
intuitive explanation in terms of the creation of these virtual
particle-antiparticle pairs.
Annex 7.
Loop quantum gravity
What is Loop
Quantum Gravity?:
https://www.curiosamente.com/videos/que-es-la-gravedad-cuantica-de-bucles
For Quantum Loop
Theory, formulated by scientists such as John Baez, Carlo Rovelli and Lee
Smolin, space is not continuous, that is, it cannot be divided infinitely:
there is a minimum unit of distance. Space-time is "grainy". Think
about your TV screen or mobile phone. You can see how a point of light moves
from side to side seemingly continuously. If you get close enough you can
notice that the screen is divided into tens of thousands of squares that form
the image. These squares are called "pixels": they are the minimum
unit of the image: they cannot be subdivided further. And a moving point of
light can be on this pixel, or on the adjacent pixel, but it can't move
"half a pixel."
The proposal of
loop Quantum Gravity is that space is also like this: pixelized. Or more
properly "quantized", in the same way that energy can only be
transferred in packets called "quanta". Not only matter and energy,
but space itself has an atomic structure. The minimum distance is called
"plank distance", it is millions of times smaller than an electron,
and nothing can move over smaller distances.
How is it
structured?
The idea is that
space-time is structured in networks of tiny curls or loops connected to each
other. These networks are called "spin networks", and are studied by
a branch of mathematics called "graph theory", which deals with
calculating the possible ways in which the vertices and edges of the network
are related. A spin lattice represents the quantum state of a gravitational
field. And it is not fixed: it is in constant flux.
A purely
speculative hypothesis says that subatomic particles could be "knots"
or "braids" within the spin lattice. This for example could be an
electron, while this could be a positron. Here we have an electron neutrino and
this one, an anti-neutrino. And the warping of space-time that manifests as
gravity on planetary or galactic scales starts here, on the smallest possible
scale. The universe would be an impressively complicated spin web.
The old idea of
space and time as a stage where things happen no longer applies. A spin network
is not in time and space: it is space-time itself.
Annex 8.
Vacuum energy. The greatest discordance in the history of science
Create the
vacuum?:
http://www.javierdelucas.es/vaciomedir.htm
Astronomical
measurements based on the motion of the solar system and especially of distant
galaxies have resulted in a maximum value for the cosmological constant:
| V|<10-56
cm-2
This maximum
value implies that the energy density of the vacuum has to be less than 10-9
erg/cm3. Next, let's see what the
theoretical estimates tell us. If we try to express the vacuum energy in Planck
units that constitute the fundamental system of units in quantum mechanics, we
obtain:
Eplanck=(hc5/G)1/2=1019
GeV
Then we have that
the energy density of the vacuum would be:
Pvac=(10 19
GeV)4=10 76 GeV=10114 erg/cm3
This is an
immense amount of energy! The discrepancy is therefore 123 orders of
magnitude. This value is of an inconceivable magnitude for the human brain.
That is why it is said that this theoretical estimate constitutes the largest
discordance between theory and experiment in the history of science.
The
calculation of the vacuum energy of the QED
QED (Quantum
Electrodynamics) is the simplest but at the same time most successful theory
that allows us to apply the principles of quantum mechanics and special
relativity to electromagnetism. To calculate the vacuum energy in QED we must
quantize the electromagnetic field. When quantizing we obtain the expression:
Pvac=E/V=1/VSum(1/2
hWk)=h/(2pi2c3)§0Wmax(w3) dW=h/(8pi2c3)w4max
This expression
leads us to the famous analogy between the electromagnetic field and a quantum
harmonic oscillator. In this way the zero-point energy will be the sum of the
zero-point energy of each harmonic oscillator.
Wmax is a
parameter called cut-off frequency that speaking "roughly" is the
value from which the contribution of high-frequency harmonics is considered
negligible. The value to enter in Wmax
is under discussion and the estimate of Pvac depends on the chosen value. A
reasonable value for Wmax would be one in which electromagnetism ceases to
exist as such and unifies with the weak force, that is, the energy at which
electroweak symmetry is restored, which is of the order of 100GeV. With this
value we get:
Pvac=(100GeV)4=1046
erg/cm3 (55 orders greater than the experimental value).
The
calculation of electroweak vacuum energy
In electroweak
theory, the energy acquired by particles and quantum fields when symmetry is
broken is proportional to the vacuum of the Higgs field. The potential of the
Higgs is:
V(Ø)=Vo-μ2Ø2+gØ4.
Where g is the
Higgs self-coupling constant. This potential is minimal for
Ø2= μ2/2g
therefore V(Ø)=Vo-μ4/4g
Considering that
V(Ø) cancels out for Ø=0 we have:
Pvac=-μ4/4g=-gv4=-(105GeV)4=
-10 43 erg/cm3 (52 orders greater than the experimental value)
The
calculation of the vacuum energy of QCD
QCD (Quantum
Chromodynamics) is the quantum theory that is used when we take into account
the strong nuclear force, that is, when we study the interior of the atomic
nucleus. In QCD there is a
characteristic energy scale called Lqcd which is the scale at which chiral symmetry is
restored and the quark-gluon condensate of the quantum vacuum disappears; for
this reason the vacuum energy in QCD is usually considered a prefactor of Lqcd.
The estimative calculation then tells us that.
Pvac=(10-3 or 10-2)4=
10 35 or 10 36 erg/cm3 (44 or 45 orders greater than the
experimental value)
The
calculation of the cosmological constant according to General Relativity
If we consider
the seriousness the problem becomes even more difficult, some will say almost
impossible to solve. The gravitational field "creates" particles in a
way equivalent to an accelerated reference frame. The Unruh effect is based on this phenomenon, so that a
detector accelerating in an empty space will detect particles continuously.
However, there is good news: experiments tell us that when gravity is weak, for
example on Earth, the calculations of our quantum theories are correct and
therefore we can disregard the contributions of gravity to vacuum energy.
Possible
solutions to the problem
As we have seen,
the contributions of known fields to vacuum energy are enormous, many orders of
magnitude above the experimentally observed value. Listed below are 4 possible
solutions to what is considered by many to be the biggest problem in physics:
1º) The
existence of new fields and particles that cancel out the enormous excess of
estimated energy
Many physicists
think that there must be new particles and new quantum fields above the
explored range of energies that would contribute to the energy of the vacuum
with opposite sign and that could cancel out the immense energy density that
our theories predict. Supersymmetry is one of the favorite candidates, however,
because supersymmetry is broken at low energies this cancellation would be far
from accurate, so the problem persists. The problem is that it is very
difficult for a theoretical model to produce an adjustment as immensely
accurate as that required. The adjustment would have to cancel out the excess
to an accuracy of at least 56 decimal places!
2º) Make a
modification of our quantum theories
No one knows how
to do this, and they have had unprecedented experimental success.
3º) Make a
modification of general relativity
This has the same
drawback as the previous one.
4º) Consider
that the vacuum does not have any energy density
This solution
seems impossible, however, it deserves to be taken into consideration: there is
no quantum experiment that can measure this energy since we always measure energy
differences. In addition, all experiments considered to be due to
vacuum energy (Cassimir effect, Lamb
shift of the hydrogen atom, etc.) can be explained as fluctuations of the
material objects of the experiment (see for example Schwinger Source Theory). To
consider that the vacuum is the state with 0 energy and 0 momentum would solve
at a stroke the problem of the cosmological constant whose value is almost
zero. Of course, the possible implications of imposing such a condition on
current theories should be studied.
If this were
correct, the vacuum would be the first known physical entity that has no energy
or momentum and therefore could be "created" in infinite quantity
without a net contribution of energy.
Annex 9.
Einstein's Equation of General Relativity
The Catastrophe
of the Void:
https://es.resonancescience.org/blog/la-catastrofe-del-vacio-2
In technical
terms, Einstein's field equations are a set of equations (specifically,
nonlinear partial differential equations) that can be expressed in a
synthesized way as a single equation:
where the first
subscript μ (mu in Greek) represents the coordinates of spacetime and the
second subscript ν (nu in Greek)
represents the coordinates of momentum (i.e. the change of space-time
coordinates – in simple terms, position – with respect to time). G is the gravitational constant, c is the speed of light, R μν is called
the Ricci curvature tensor, g μν is called the metric tensor is the scalar curvature, and T
μν is called the stress-energy tensor. This equation includes
the constant Λ, known as the cosmological constant, to account for an
additional source of energy. Λ represents an additional force of expansion (dark
energy). The figure a little further down shows the terms of the above
equation and their meaning.
The existence of
dark energy and dark matter were deduced so that Einstein's field equations
could correctly predict the expansion of the universe and the rotation speed of
galaxies. According to this view, dark energy is the source of an expanding
force in the universe (this is what explains the Hubble constant in mainstream
theories), while dark matter provides a source of additional gravity needed to
stabilize galaxies and galaxy clusters, since there is not enough ordinary mass
to hold them together given the accelerated expansion of the Universe. This
extra gravity would also explain the rotational speed of galaxies.
Broadly speaking,
the left side of the equation in the figure above expresses the geometric
deformation of spacetime produced by the energy-mass contribution on the right
side of the same equation. This warping of space also explains the
gravitational waves recently detected by LIGO in 2015 and emanating from the
merger of two black holes.
As physicist John
Wheeler states, "space-time tells matter how to move; Matter tells
space-time how to curve."
Annex 10.
Dirac equation
https://significado.com/ecuacion-de-dirac/
Apply
quantization rules on a four-dimensional vector function.
Quantization
rules lead to operations with derivatives that normally act on a scalar wave
function, but since the constants α and β are 4X4 matrices, the differential
operators will act on a four-dimensional vector Ψ, which was later called the
spinor.
If a system of
measurement is chosen in which the speed of light is 1, the Dirac equation is
written as follows:
In the above equation a sum is expressed over the indices μ, starting from 0 to 3, and of course, "i" is the imaginary unit, since it is an equation in complex variable.
This equation is
usually further compacted by using the symbol ∂ crossed by a forward slash / to
symbolize the sum of derivatives, so it is:
That expression is what has remained as
"equation of love".
The solutions
of the Dirac equation and electron spin
The Dirac
equation is an equation of eigenvalues corresponding to the possible energies.
There are two solutions with positive energy, one for each spin state, and two
solutions with negative energy, also for each of the two possible spin states.
It is noteworthy
that spin, in the Dirac equation, appears naturally, as a result of its
possible solutions and as a direct consequence of taking into account the
relativistic energy.
Thus, for the
first time in physics, it is realized that spin, an intrinsic property of the
electron and other elementary particles, is a consequence of relativity. By the
way, this property of the electron had been proven before Dirac formulated his
equation, thanks to the famous experiment of Stern and Gerlach in 1922.
The Dirac
equation predicts the existence of antimatter.
Dirac was
incredibly brilliant at having obtained his equation, ingeniously applying
mathematics, and it is also remarkable the way he interpreted his solutions.
At first, it was
not clear to Dirac whether there were electrons with negative kinetic energy.
He then theorized the following:
The vacuum (the
absence of electrons) is not such but is filled with electrons with negative
energy in their two spin states.
What happens is
that scientists do not have the possibility of seeing these electrons, in the
same way that fish in the sea are not normally seen, hence the name Dirac Sea.
Now, if a photon can
deliver enough energy to one of the electrons in that sea, then it will be
visible, appearing out of nowhere.
But the vacant
space in the Dirac Sea is a positively charged hole, that is, a particle of the
same mass and charge as the electron, but positive, called a positron.
Shortly after
Dirac's performance, in 1932, Carl D. Anderson experimentally detected the
positron.
Annex 11. Alcubierre metric
Alcubierre Metric:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9trica_de_Alcubierre
Graph of the Alcubierre drive, showing the opposite, contracted and extended regions of space-time with respect to the central sector in which the flat deformation bubble is located.
The Alcubierre
metric is a speculative idea based on a mathematical
model that would make possible travel at speeds greater
than c (speed of
light), that is, superluminal. Based on some of the theoretical but probable
instances studied of space-time, Alcubierre proposes the metric that bears his
name as a solution to Einstein's
equations within the
framework of the General Theory of Relativity.
It was published
in the scientific journal Classical and Quantum Gravity1 in 1994 by Mexican physicist Miguel Alcubierre.
Index
General idea (the
Deformation Impulse)
Alcubierre's
metric has, as one of its most striking conclusions, the possibility of a trip
faster than light by creating a plane deformation bubble within which
the cosmoship would be stationary; behind the cosmoship space-time would be deformed
extending it while on the counterpart in front of the cosmoship space-time would be contracted or contracted thus putting
the destination point much closer, While
"behind" the spaceship space-time would be expanded
"pushed" back a lot of light years, all this without the space and time within the
bubble of flat deformation in which the cosmoship would be found to be
notoriously modified.
In such a case
the ship (to make an analogy) would "surf" on a kind of spacetime
wave within the "flat deformation bubble" that is flat because it
remains stable between the two distortions (the previous and the posterior)
caused in space-time (a local distortion of space-time would be created).
There would be
enormous tidal forces in the peripheral region of the supposed bubble due
to the curvatures caused in space-time; however, such forces would be
negligible inside the bubble given the flat character that space-time would
have there (see graph).
No physical law
of those foreseen by the theory of relativity would be violated since within
the "deformation bubble" nothing would exceed the speed of light; The
ship would not move within such a bubble but would be carried by it, the ship
inside the bubble would never travel faster than a beam of light.
The ship and its
presumed crew would be exempt from suffering the devastating effects caused by accelerations with their corresponding enormous g-forces,
decelerations or relativistic effects such as Lorentz
contraction and time
dilation at high speeds.
Alcubierre has been able to demonstrate that even when the spacecraft is
accelerating it travels in a geodesic free fall.
However, the fact
that the warp bubble allows superluminal travel is due to the possibility that the space-time
itself in which light travels has the ability to exceed the speed of light. The
Theory of Relativity considers it impossible for objects to travel at a speed
greater than that of light in space-time, but it is unknown at what maximum speed
space-time can move; it is hypothesized that at almost the initial instant
of the Big Bang our universe possessed superluminal exponential
velocities (see Inflationary
universe), it is also
assumed that some quasars Very far away they can reach
transluminal recession speeds.
Here another
analogy is introduced: there is a maximum speed at which an object can march on
the ground, but what would happen if it is a mobile floor – such as a conveyor
belt – that exceeds the speed of the march? This involves a change in the
coordinate system used as a reference to measure velocity. If the coordinate
system moves in the same direction of displacement with respect to a second
reference frame (which should be external to spacetime itself), the object
should be able to increase its velocity indefinitely with respect to the second
reference frame. What this analogy raises is whether it would be possible to
"ride on a ray of light"?
To create a
device such as the deformation bubble that
allows the deformation impulse
— explains Alcubierre — it would be
necessary to operate with matter of
negative density or exotic matter, thus creating with such matter a bubble of negative energy that would encompass the ship (see Dirac, Negative
energy ). According to
Alcubierre, the amount of negative energy would be proportional to the speed of
propagation of the strain bubble, verifying that the distribution of negative
energy would be concentrated in a toroidal region perpendicular to the direction in which the
plane bubble would move (see illustration).
In this way,
since the energy density would be negative, one could travel at a speed
greater than that of light thanks to the effect caused by exotic matter. The
existence of exotic matter is not ruled out, rather the Casimir effect seems to confirm the existence of such matter;
however, producing enough exotic matter and conserving it to perform a feat
such as superluminal travel poses the same currently unsolvable problems
as to keep a wormhole stable. . On the other hand, in General
Relativity a feasible distribution of matter and energy is first specified and
then an associated space-time geometry is found; while it is possible to
operate with Einstein's equations by first specifying a metric and then finding
the energy and momentum tensor associated with such a metric (which is what
Alcubierre did), this practice means that the solution could violate several
energy conditions and require the exotic matter.
Robert J. Low, in 19992 has proved that within the context of general
relativity and even in the absence of exotic matter it is possible to construct
a bubble of deformation (the texts in French use as equivalent of bubble of
deformation the words «commande de chaîne»/ order of chain). A coherent theory
of quantum
gravity may serve to
resolve these questions.
In addition,
Alexey Bobrick and Gianni Martire claim that, in principle, a class of
subluminal and spherically symmetrical factorial impulse spacetimes can be
constructed based on physical principles currently known to mankind, such as
positive energy. 3
Form of the
metric[edit]
The Alcubierre
metric can be written:
The energy
density needed to cause that metric tensor is:
Thus the energy density is negative and exotic matter is therefore required to cause the deformations of space-time. 4
Other
denominations
The system
assumed by Alcubierre for cosmic travel is called in English "Warp
Drive" (the same name given in the Star Trek series), the translation is: Deformation Impulse or
Deformation Impulse or Driven Distortion, there are also the following
translations: Torsion Impulse, Warp Impulse, Curved Impulse, Deformative
Impulse, Curved Travel, Warped Travel,
Bending Motor and even Factorial Impulse Motor. All these denominations give
the notion of the basic principle of this hypothetical method of "superluminal" travel: instead
of accelerating an object (suppose the cosmoship) to speed c or close to c, the "fabric" of
space-time would warp or curve so that the objects to which it travels approach
without a movement of the ship in the usual sense of the term movement: More than moving the ship -in these
hypotheses-, spacetime is moved (curved).
See also:
- Einstein field equation
- White–Juday warp field interferometer
- Warp drive (Warp drive raised in science
fiction);
- Krasnikov
tube
- Wormhole
References
- ↑ Alcubierre, M. "The Warp
Drive: Hyper-fast Transluminic within General Relativity", Classical
and Quantum Gravity, 11(5),L 73-77 (1994)
- Low, Robert J. (1999). "Speed
Limits in General Relativity". Class. Quant. Grav. 16: 543-549. See also the «eprint version». arXiv.
Retrieved June 30, 2005.
- ↑ Bobrick, Alexey; Martire, Gianni
(April 20, 2021). "Introducing physical warp
drives". Classical and Quantum Gravity
38 (10): 105009. Bibcode:2021CQGra.. 38J5009B. ISSN 0264-9381. S2CID
231924903. arXiv:2102.06824. doi:10.1088/1361-6382/abdf6e.
- ↑ "Christopher Pike":The existence
of exotic matter is not theoretically ruled out, the Casimir effect and
the Accelerating Universe both lends support to the proposed existence of
such matter. However, generating enough exotic matter and sustaining it
to perform feats such as faster-than-light travel (and also to keep open
the 'throat' of a wormhole) is thought to be impractical. Low has argued
that within the context of general relativity, it is impossible to
construct a warp drive in the absence of exotic matter
Bibliography
- Michio Kaku: "Physics of the impossible".
Chapter "Faster than light".
- (in English) Lobo, Francisco S. N.;
& Visser, Matt: Fundamental limitations on 'warp drive' spacetimes |
Class newspaper. Quant. Grav. | year=2004 | volume=21 | pp.=5871-5892 see
also [1]
- (in English) Hiscock, William A.:
Quantum effects in the Alcubierre warp drive spacetime, Class periodical.
Quant. Grav. | year=1997 | volume=14 | pp.=L183-L188}} http://www.arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9707024 | accessmonthday=23 June |
accessyear=2005}}
- L. H. Ford and T. A. Roman (1996).
"Quantum field theory constrains traversable wormhole
geometries". Physical Review D: 5496. v.t. also the «eprint». arXiv.
- (in English) Berry, Adrian
(1999). The Giant Leap: Mankind Heads for the
Stars. Headline.
ISBN 0-7472-7565-3..
- T. S. Taylor, T. C. Powell,
"Current Status of Metric Engineering with Implications for the Warp
Drive," AIAA-2003-4991 39th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion
Conference and Exhibit, Huntsville, Alabama, July 20-23, 2003
External links
- (in English) The Alcubierre Warp Drive by John G. Cramer
- (in English) The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within
general relativity - original publication by Alcubierre (PDF file)
- (in English) Problems with Warp Drive Examined - (PDF file)
- (in English) Marcelo B. Ribeiro's Page on Warp
Drive Theory
- (in English) A short video clip of the
hypothetical effects of the warp drive.
- (in English) Doc Travis S. Taylor's website
- (in English) The (Im) Possibility of Warp Drive (Van den Broeck)
- (in English) Reduced Energy Requirements for Warp Drive (Loup, Waite)
- (in English) Warp Drive Space-Time (Gonzalez-Diaz)
- (in English) Warp Drive May Be More Feasible Than
Thought
Annex 12.
Key steps of evolution
The 10 most
relevant evolutionary steps:
https://tallcute.wordpress.com/2010/07/05/los-10-saltos-evolutivos-mas-complejos/
The evolution of
species throughout their history has allowed the appearance of impressive
qualities to living beings. In this post I would like to review what I believe
are the 10 most relevant changes that have occurred in the history of life on
Earth since the first living beings appeared. Evidently these steps were all
very gradual and it is difficult to limit them to "one step". The
list is ordered in chronological order of appearance starting from the first
replicating beings whose specific characteristics we can only speculate today:
1-Fidelity in
DNA copying
A bacterium today
makes a mistake in copying DNA every 10E10
generations approximately. This ratio between mutations and
fidelity allows adaptations but limiting to accumulate large errors quickly
that would end the species. The main
architect of this evolutionary wonder is called DNA polymerase that alone is
able to faithfully copy several thousand DNA bases before making a mistake. The
more advanced versions that appeared later in the evolution of eukaryotes also
have revision mechanisms to minimize the errors made. Its need for life is such
that there are no living beings that lack this mechanism. Only some viruses like HIV that in return use the perfect cellular
machinery.
2-The scourge
Bacterial
flagellum
From waiting for
the food to arrive, to going to p0r her. This is one of the main changes
brought about by the scourge. Although previously bacteria developed small
filaments (cilia) that allowed some movement, the truth is that these were
totally subjected to the forces that govern Brownian motion: Imagine that you
are inside a pool full of marbles that propel themselves at full speed in all
directions. The scourge also meant an improvement in the ability to
colonize new and distant environments or to escape adverse circumstances. You
can watch a video about the evolution of the flagellum here where its appearance is postulated from
an organulo intended for subjection.
2-The
photoreceptor
And there was
light. The ability to recognize light initially implied access to food (the
synthesis of many organic compounds is catalyzed by light) and a guide to
movement (defined up and down). However, this small advance would sow the seed
for two future mechanisms of great relevance: photosynthesis and vision.
Photoreceptors are based on pigments capable of being excited by light and
transmitting this excited state to some protein.
3-Photosynthesis
Who needs food
when you can make it? This is perhaps the most impressive evolutionary leap:
the ability to produce organic compounds from much more abundant
inorganics. These reactions require great energy that living beings obtain from
heat, degradation of other organic / inorganic compounds or light. You can read
more about photosynthesis in this other post I wrote. Photosynthesis could not be possible
without photoreceptors that also probably coevolved with the improvement of the
flagellum. None of these "houses of cards" would have endured without
fidelity in DNA copying.
4-The Krebs
cycle and oxidative respiration
Photosynthesis
brought with it a new era of problems or opportunities depending on how you
look at it. The main waste of photosynthesis is oxygen. A molecule that now
seems innocuous to us but when it appeared it was like living in a sea of
arsenic. Oxygen has the ability to oxidize DNA and proteins and
interfered with many of the reactions needed by bacteria at the time. The
emergence of atmospheric oxygen was probably a rapid process that ended with
the stroke of a pen with most species. Some species (including those producing
oxygen) developed mechanisms to inactivate oxygen, among these mechanisms we
find the use of electrons and protons that react with oxygen producing water.
Interestingly, electrons can be obtained as waste products of the metabolism of
organic compounds. The sophistication of the metabolism of sugars in the
so-called Krebs cycle together with a complex electron transport system allowed
to make the most of the energy of organic compounds.
5-The
eukaryotic cell
The complexity of
the appearance of life is the only fact comparable to the appearance of the
eukaryotic cell. It has been speculated that eukaryotes come from the symbiosis of several bacterial types, a hypothesis
that gains strength with genetic analysis. In any case the appearance of cells
with defined nuclei and organelles is a great black box. One of the most
interesting evolutionary processes that we have left to decipher. The
breakthrough of the eukaryotic cell can be described with something as simple
as compartmentalization. Everything in its corner. Many cellular
chemical reactions require a very specific environment incompatible with other
reactions.
6-Cell
specialization
The favorite son.
A cell divides in two but does not leave the same in each daughter cell: one
contains more waste than another, different concentration of proteins or is
missing some component. These could have been the antecedents of cell
specialization. It currently occurs in bacteria, yeasts or some unicellular
algae and in some cases live in colonies, where some individualsin certain
functions depending on their location within the colony. Specialization means
greater efficiency. From there even cells such as neurons or white blood cells
would still be a long way off.
7-Sexual
reproduction
What would become
of us without sex! It has been suggested that sexual reproduction allows rapid
adaptation of species by rapidly eliminating pernicious mutations and spreading
beneficial ones. Its appearance could be related to viruses and other parasites
or as a collateral result of the strategy of duplicating the genome to reduce
the effects of mutations. In any case, living beings with sexual reproduction
have diversified and acquired a complexity that no asexual being can overcome.
8-Embryonic
development
"Nothing that happens to you in life
will mark you as much as gastrulation." The instructions to form a body in a progressive and orderly way
meant the jump between a world of jellyfish and worms to the current one.
Instructions that are grouped into blocks or genetic packages that allow great
adaptability. A step to highlight in embryonic development is gastrulation, which consists of the invagination of a layer of
cells from the embryo. Thus, at first glance it does not seem so important, but
its appearance meant the specialization in 3D, as it happens in most
animals like us compared to the specialization in 2D that occurs in worms.
Stages of human
embryonic development
9-The nervous
system and the brain
Long before the
appearance of the nervous system, cells communicated only through contacts with
their neighboring cell and the emission of signals, such as hormones. In my
opinion the leap is not so much in the formation of a network to get the
signals faster but in a centralization of the signals, which in the long
term would mean the appearance of the brain. The study of neural networks
has advanced considerably in recent years thanks to studies in several model
animals, especially in the C-worm. They chooses, the one we know the network formed by its
302 neurons.
10-The
perception of the individual
Until a few years
ago it was believed that only higher primates had this ability. However,
several studies show that other mammals
such as the elephant or the dolphin, and even birds
such as the magpie have
this ability. It has been speculated that this capacity is the precursor to the
emergence of what we call the self and rational thought. While the
latter would deserve a whole scale by itself.
Annex 13.
Quantum mechanics in biological processes
The Quantum Mechanics of Photosynthesis:
http://neofronteras.com/?p=3012
They discover
surprising and fascinating quantum mechanical mechanisms that occur during part of photosynthesis. It
seems that an algae invented quantum computing 2 billion years before humans.
If someone tells us that during photosynthesis Quantum Mechanics is used, we should not be surprised in the least. After all, the photoelectric cell of the elevator or the solar panels on the roof (if they have any) work under the same principles. The explanation for the photoelectric effect is already 105 years old, was given by Albert Einstein and therefore received the Nobel Prize in Physics. Everyone knows, therefore, that quantum mechanics must play an essential role in photosynthesis, but the details of the process were unknown.
When one studies Quantum Mechanics (MC) for the first time one is a little
disappointed, because its introduction is usually phenomenological. One expects
to see Schrödinger cats and instead sees, at most, quanta of energy and levels
in the hydrogen atom or in the square well. That is, the most that is usually
reached is the Schrödinger equation.
The most fantastic and surprising usually comes after and for this you need a
good mathematical scaffolding based on Hilbert spaces. It is then that the bases
of the CM are seen, its postulates, the preparation of states, the
superposition of them, the collapse of the wave function, the EPR paradox and,
of course, Schrödinger's cat.
Doing experiments to study these details of the MC is very difficult, normally
everything goes to ruin with the slightest disturbance, so sometimes you have
to cool the system to study to temperatures close to absolute zero, at which
time all vibration ceases. That is why it is so difficult to get the famous
quantum computer. Having a particle in a superposition of a pair of states is
quite an achievement. Well, apparently plants have been doing this for billions
of years.
A team from the University of Toronto has made a major contribution to the
field of Quantum Biology by observing very special quantum states during the
photosynthesis of seaweeds. Another Australian team has reached similar
results.
According to Greg Scholes, leader of the Canadian project, their experiments
show that biological systems have the ability to use CM to optimize essential
processes such as photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis uses different biochemical systems. In a first step are the
"antennas" or complexes that capture light and take it to the
reaction centers where other processes take place that finally give rise to
chemical energy usable by the plant. When a photon reaches one of these
antennas they transfer their energy to the electrons in it, but this energy can
be lost if it is not quickly transferred to another molecule.
In the algae Chroomonas CCMP270, for example, these antennas have 8
molecules of pigments woven into a larger protein structure, and each pigment
absorbs light from a different frequency range (color) of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The path along these molecules is important because the longer the
journey the more energy losses can occur. From a classical point of view the
energy should travel by a random path through them. Therefore, the researchers expected
that the energy of a laser pulse would not be transferred from the antenna to
the reaction centers efficiently and some would be lost.
This team of researchers isolated these antennas or light-gathering complexes
from two different species of seaweed and studied their operation at room
temperature (at 21 degrees Celsius) thanks to two-dimensional electron
spectroscopy. To do this, they used a femtosecond laser with which they
illuminated these complexes and thus mimic the natural process of light absorption.
The pulse of this type of laser is so short that the processes that occur after
illumination can be monitored more easily without the interference of the beam
that illuminated, although those processes are very fast. Among the phenomena
that can be observed is the movement of energy by special molecules that are
attached to a protein.
By exciting with the laser pulse, the electrons of the pigment molecules jump
to an excited state. When they return to their ground states, photons with
slightly different wavelengths are emitted and combine to form a certain
interference pattern. By studying this pattern, scientists were able to study
the state of superposition being created.
The researchers were surprised to clearly observe the long-term survival (four
times longer than expected) of quantum-mechanical states related to that energy
movement. This time (400 femtoseconds or 4 × 10-13 s) is long
enough for the absorbed photon energy to rehearse all possible paths (remember
Feyman's path integral?) along the antenna, allowing it to travel losslessly.
For a while the absorbed light energy resides in several places at once. That is,
there is a coherent superposition of quantum states. In essence, the antenna
performs quantum computing to determine the best way to transfer energy. The
discovery goes against the assumed idea that quantum coherence can only occur
at very low temperatures near absolute zero, because ambient heat can destroy
it. It is unknown how this photosynthetic system manages to perform this feat,
but it is speculated that it may be due to the structure of the protein itself.
According to Scholes, this result could mean that quantum-mechanical
probability laws prevail over classical laws in complex biological systems,
even at normal temperature. Energy can then flow efficiently under the
classical perspective in a counterintuitive way and simultaneously traverse
several alternative pathways through proteins. In other words, the collection
complexes convert light into a wave that travels from the antenna to the
reaction centers without loss of energy.
Scholes wonders whether organisms developed this quantum-mechanical strategy of
capturing solar energy as an adaptive advantage. According to him it is as if
the algae "knew" Quantum Mechanics 2000 million years before humans.
The question that remains to be resolved is obvious: do these kinds of
quantum-mechanical phenomena occur in other biological processes?
Paul Davies, director of the Arizona-based BEYOND Center for Fundamental Concepts in Science,
believes that nature has had billions of years to evolve by taking
advantage of quantum advantages, and that it probably exploits them efficiently
when it can. He suspects that the workings of many nanoscale biological
structures can only be fully understood
with references to coherence, tunneling, entanglement, and other nontrivial
quantum processes. The challenge will be to identify such processes in the
cell's noisy environment.
Annex 14.
Quantum tunneling to achieve nuclear fusion in the Sun
Chemistry of
the Sun
https://triplenlace.com/2014/01/16/la-quimica-del-sol/
At 8 minutes and
19 light-seconds is our sun. When we observe our star appear on the horizon
between indigo mists and soft reds, it has been 8 minutes and 19 seconds since
the sun was in that position. It is located no less than 150 million kilometers
from Earth. And thank goodness because it is a powerful chemical reactor.
From the sun we
know that its diameter is 109 times that of the Earth, specifically 1,400,000
km; Three-quarters is composed of hydrogen, one-quarter is helium and less than
2% is made up of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, neon, iron and sulfur. The
temperature on its surface is 5,000 degrees Celsius while at its core it
reaches the astronomical figure (never better said) of 15 million degrees
Celsius. But what chemical reaction achieves such exuberant results? Nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear fusion in
the sun involves the transformation of two light atoms into a heavier atom.
Those light atoms are the fuel of the reaction and turn out to be isotopes of
hydrogen. Hydrogen is the simplest of the chemical elements, it has a proton in
its nucleus and an electron spinning around. However, isotopes are also present
in nature; From time to time the proton of the nucleus of the hydrogen atom
appears accompanied by neutral particles: neutrons. When a neutron accompanies
the hydrogen proton in the nucleus we have a deuterium atom, 2 H or D; when two neutrons
are added to the hydrogen proton we have another isotope, tritium,
3H.
These two
isotopes of hydrogen are the key atoms of the nuclear fusion reaction. When a
deuterium atom meets a tritium atom and they fuse together in a supershock
they leave behind a new atom containing in its nucleus two protons and two
neutrons: a helium atom, He. But if you have done the head-on accounts,
you will have noticed that in this balance of matter, we have one neutron left
over.
12 H + 1 3H → 24He
+ 01n
Indeed, that
excess neutron is fired after the collision with the speed of light,
transforming its mass into energy according to Einstein's famous equation:
E = mc2
Where E is
energy, m is the mass of the particle and c is the speed of
light. For every mole of hydrogen that reacts, 180 GJ (gigajoules) are
released!
Now, seen this
way it does not seem that this reaction has much complication and being able to
control it would free us from our dependence on fossil fuels such as gasoline
or natural gas and that is what scientists who investigate cold fusion
are working on. But why
"cold"? Let's go back to the sun. The conditions in which this
reaction takes place do not occur easily. First, the sun is a mass of plasma.
Plasma is a state of matter at very high temperatures in which the mass of its
surface is less dense and much denser in its core. The high temperatures to
which the atoms in the plasma are subjected cause them to lose their electrons
turning it into a kind of ionized gas.
Therefore, in
those conditions we have a ball of nuclei that move and collide with each other
and that the closer they are to the plasma nucleus they reach more temperature
and more density. That is, they move more (have more kinetic energy) and are
closer to each other at extreme pressures. At the highest point of temperature
and density, the nuclei reach a speed close to that of light. However, although
all this sounds favorable for a nuclear fusion shock, there is also another
powerful force that is unfavorable: the repulsive
force between the protons, since they have positive charges and repel each
other. Sometimes these forces of repulsion can be infinite. The question is to
resolve at what point the kinetic energy and density are sufficient to overcome
that repulsion, for which we must resort to what is known in physics as quantum
tunneling or penetration barrier.
This effect of
quantum mechanics takes advantage of the wave-particle duality of matter at
subatomic levels and predicts that for a particle that is confined in a room
with infinitely high walls, and therefore can never overcome them with its
associated wave function, can nevertheless pass through the wall as if it were
a ghost. The Schrödinger equation
can make a prediction about the probability that this particle has of
leaving its confinement by "passing" through the wall thanks to the
fact that it has a wave function that varies smoothly within the region near
the wall and recovers the oscillating wave aspect when it leaves it. This is
possible for light particles passing through barriers or "walls" of
small thickness, such as hydrogen isotopes overcoming the energy barrier of
their own repulsion.
Intense research
in the field of cold fusion is aimed at achieving this thermonuclear reaction
at room temperature. Fuel in the form of light particles such as hydrogen
isotopes are readily available and would become an inexhaustible source of
energy. Controlled cold nuclear fusion is undoubtedly one of the greatest
energy challenges facing modern science. Actually, it is: the star
challenge.
Annex 15.
Is our consciousness quantum?
Confirmation of
Quantum Resonance in the Microtubules of the Brain
Biomolecules
exhibit quantum mechanical behavior.
A research team
led by Anirban Bandyopadhyay – a preeminent researcher in the science of
quantum biology – has demonstrated the existence of quantum mechanical
vibrations at high temperature in the neurons of the brain. The research,
carried out at the National Institute of Materials Science in Tsukuba (Japan),
discovered how the high-frequency oscillation of microtubules – measured in
this case at one million cycles per second (one megahertz – 1MHz of oscillation
of the electric dipole moments of free electrons and conformational
change), They cause wave interference
that can give rise to the characteristic shape of the brain's electrical
oscillations that correlate with consciousness, namely a new type of 40 Hz / 4 Hz
electroencephalographic (EEG) signal from nested gestalts (gamma and delta
oscillations, respectively), called "beat frequencies".
Gamma frequencies
have been correlated with consciousness, apparently through the action of
neural synchronization, and the periodic wave structure of gamma-delta
"beat frequencies" is very reminiscent of the alternating
interference bands of quanta that occur in double-slit experiments. Thus, it
seems that the brain synchronization of consciousness is linked to the
underlying quantum mechanical behaviors of microtubules. With these quantum
vibrations, microtubules can be entangled in neural networks through
interconnecting channels, called gap junctions, that physically bind neurons
together. This is the theory of consciousness developed and defended by
University of Arizona quantum biologist and chief anesthesiologist Stuart
Hameroff and Oxford University professor emeritus of mathematics, physicist
Roger Penrose.
The latest
findings strongly support his model that quantum mechanics within the brain
engenders consciousness, which has received passionate criticism from academics
since its inception in the 1980s, as is typical of any revolutionary paradigm.
The role of
water in the brain
Anirban
Bandyopadhyay and his research team have conducted experiments that indicate
the central importance of water in information processing operations within the
brain and body. In their paper: The Atomic Water Channel Controlling the
Remarkable Properties of a Single Brain Microtubule, the research team reported experimentation with
highly ordered water within the cylindrical cavity of the microtubule lumen.
They found that when water was evacuated from the central chamber, the
microtubule ceased to show a strong correlation in the macromolecular set of
tubulin subunits.
This suggests
that water plays a central role in coordinating the behavior of the
microtubule's multiple subunits and that, in effect, it functions as a single
molecule, a highly quantum effect. Water, as physicist Nassim Haramein and
the RSF research team have suggested, is part of the far-reaching coherence and
orchestration of cellular information processes correlated with consciousness [1].
[1] See
the section "The role of ordered
water in the coherence and transmission of information within the biological
system" in Unified Spacememory Network; Haramein et al., 2017.
Observations
of anesthesia
In addition,
research conducted at the University of Pennsylvania, led by Roderick G.
Eckenhoff, suggests that anesthetic compounds act in part by disrupting the
normal function of microtubules, apparently dispersing the electrical dipoles
necessary for consciousness. It was the anesthesiological studies of Stuart
Hameroff in the 70s that led him to suggest a role of microtubules in the
generation of consciousness, after observing changes in the dynamics of
microtubules when exposed to anesthetic compounds. If there is a molecule that
stops consciousness, then seeing what specific changes occur in the cellular
environment when exposed to that compound will be an important clue to what
structures are involved in generating consciousness.
Hameroff's
revolutionary idea was to take the theoretical mechanisms of consciousness from
the cellular-synaptic level to the nanometer scale of large biomolecular
networks, where quantum mechanical behaviors could occur (following in the wake
of Herbert Fröhlich, who had proposed that long polymeric biomolecules could
achieve quantum coherent solution waves by pumping metabolic energy, which
resulted in a non-local entanglement (which was later called Fröhlich
condensates).
A new kind of
physics
One of the key
features of Hameroff and Penrose's theory is called Orchestrated Objective
Reduction (Orch-OR), in which it is theorized that the state vector (the wave
function describing a particle) of the free electrons delocalized within the
tubulin undergoes an observer-independent reduction (an objective versus
subjective collapse of the wave function). As the electron displays more
and more nonlocal attributes, which is known as superposition, the geometry of
the underlying spacetime bifurcates, and the degree of separation between the
"bubbles" of spacetime—measured in Planck lengths—reaches a critical
distance, at which point the geometry of spacetime becomes unstable and
collapses.
This mechanism is
known as the Diósi-Penrose criterion of gravity-induced quantum collapse. Each
of these bifurcations and collapses represents an indeterminable quantum
computation, and the coordination of a multitude of these events through
quantum entanglement (the orchestrated part of OR) allows for massively
parallel quantum computations within the brain. As Hameroff and Penrose
suggest, this is what produces consciousness. Since the reduction of the state
vector is entirely due to this stochastic mechanism, and is therefore
indeterminate, it confers on consciousness a characteristic of
unpredictability.
The USN and
Haramein Escalation Law
Just as the
Diósi-Penrose criterion of gravity-induced quantum collapse is mediated by a
quantum geometry of underlying spacetime, Haramein et alii describe an
underlying spacetime geometry in the paper The Unified Spacemory Network.
Unlike the Diósi-Penrose mechanism, the quantum geometry of spacetime of the
unified spacetime network does not involve overlaps, but strong entanglement
through the underlying Planckian spacetime microhole network. In addition to
microtubules, the authors highlight the importance of structures such as
atomically ordered water and cell system membranes.
Microtubules are
really remarkable macromolecular structures of the biological system, so it is
not surprising that several researchers have become interested in them. In the
paper Scale Unification, Haramein and Rauscher, together with biologist
Michael Hyson, present their findings on a universal-scale law for organized
matter. There are a number of organized systems of matter that obey the
Schwarzschild condition of a black hole, and when plotted on a graph of
frequency versus radius, a trend line emerges, in which structures from
cosmological to subatomic size show a definite scale relationship. The
surprising thing is that the microtubules are located in the center of the
trend line, occupying the position between the ultra large and the ultra small,
the macrocosm and the microcosm.
"Interestingly,
the microtubules of eukaryotic cells, which have a typical length of 2 X 10-8
cm and an estimated vibrational frequency of 10 9 to 10 14 Hz, are quite close to the line
specified by the law of scaling and intermediate between the stellar and atomic
scales" - Haramein et al, Scale
Unification, 2008
The fractal
collector
According to this
finding, microtubules may have a harmonic relationship with the polarizable
structures of the quantum vacuum (which show that it is in a Ф (phi) ratio! A
fractal-like scale relationship). John Wheeler first described these
fluctuating vacuum structures as Planck mini black holes. Similarly, Haramein
shows how vacuum oscillators can in fact be white hole/black hole systems.
Thus, while the Diósi-Penrose criterion uses a bifurcated "bubble"
geometry of spacetime, the Haramein solution shows how the action of polarized
white hole/black hole spacetime structures can be, whose oscillation functions
as a computational element in analogy with the gravity-induced collapse of the
Hameroff-Penrose mechanism.
"The
universality of this scaling law suggests an underlying polarizable structured
vacuum of mini white holes/black holes." -Ibid
In addition,
Haramein describes a fractal multiple structure of spacetime, far from the
smooth, flat spacetime architecture envisioned by the Standard Model. This is
very pertinent to the nature of consciousness, because fractal systems are
produced by/and underlie chaos dynamics.
One of the key
characteristics of chaotic systems is that they can be extremely sensitive to
even small changes, due to the nonlinear interactions that result from feedback
operations and the high overall coherence within the system. As such, there is
an indeterminate nature to fractal/chaotic systems, such as when trying to
predict time. So, unlike the objective reduction mechanism proposed by Hameroff
and Penrose, the chaotic dynamics of quantum vacuum foam fluctuations could be
the source of the apparent unpredictability and self-will so characteristic of
our consciousness (note that in technical semantics, chaos does not mean
disorder, but quite the opposite. it
only involves certain key characteristics, such as a degree of
unpredictability.)
Between a rock
and a hard place? Find the middle way.
As more and more
nonlocal quantum mechanical phenomena are discovered within the biological
system, Hameroff and Penrose's theory (as well as that of other researchers
investigating this new frontier of science) is accumulating tangible empirical
evidence, so that models of quantum consciousness are moving from being
beautiful theoretical constructs to becoming demonstrable facts. What is
remarkable about Hameroff's model of consciousness, as well as Haramein's, is
that they find the middle ground between two extremes: the
spiritual/metaphysical perspective on the one hand, in which consciousness is
primary and cannot be explained scientifically; and on the other hand the
scientific/materialist perspective, in which consciousness is an illusory
epiphenomenological state that emerges from the complexity of neurons and plays
no role in the dynamics of the Universe in general. Instead, what we call
consciousness can not only arise from the dynamics of discrete physical events
of the quantum collector of spacetime, but also plays an intrinsic role in the
ordering and dynamics of the Universe.
Annex 16.
String theory and supersymmetry
String theory
http://www.nocierreslosojos.com/teoria-cuerdas/
- Key Figure: Leonard Susskind (b. 1940)
- Before:
- 1914 The idea of a fifth dimension is
proposed to explain how gravity works together with electromagnetism.
- 1926 Swedish physicist Oscar Klein develops
ideas about unobservable extra dimensions.
- 1961 A theory is devised to unify
electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force.
- After:
- 1975 Abraham Pais and Sam Treiman coin the
term "standard model".
- 1995 Edward Witten, American physicist,
develops M-theory, which includes 11 dimensions.
- 2012 Large Hadron Collider detects Higgs boson.
Leonard Susskind
Born in New York
(USA) in 1940, Leonard Susskind holds the Felix Bloch Chair of Physics at
Stanford University in California. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell
University (New York) in 1965 and joined Stanford University in 1979.
In 1969 he
published the theory for which he is known: string theory. His mathematical
work showed that particle physics could be explained by vibrating strings at
the smallest level. In the 1970s he further developed that idea, and in 2003 he
coined the term "string theory landscape." This radical notion was
intended to highlight the large number of possible universes that would make up
an incredible "megaverse" with, perhaps, other universes with the
necessary conditions for life. Susskind
is today a highly respected figure in his field.
- Main works:
- 2005 The cosmic landscape.
- 2008 The War of Black Holes.
- 2013 The theoretical minimum.
Particle physics
Particle
physicists use the so-called "Standard Model" theory to
explain the universe. Developed in the 1960s and 1970s, that model describes
the particles and fundamental forces of nature that make up the universe and
hold it together. One problem with the Standard Model is that it does not fit
with Einstein's theory of general relativity, which relates gravity (one
of the four forces) and the structure of
space and time and treats them as a four-dimensional entity
("space-time"). The Standard Model does not fit the curvature of
space-time advocated by general relativity.
Quantum
mechanics, on the other
hand, explains how particles interact at the smallest levels (at the atomic
scale), but does not account for gravity. Attempts have been made in vain to
unite the two theories; For now, the Standard Model can only explain three of
the four fundamental forces.
Particles and
forces
In particle
physics, atoms are made up of a nucleus of protons and neutrons, surrounded by
electrons. The electron and quarks that make up protons and neutrons are among
the 12 fermions (particles of matter): the elementary or fundamental particles
that are the smallest known building blocks of the universe. Fermions are
subdivided into quarks and leptons. Next to those fermions, there are bosons
(force-carrying particles) and the four forces of nature: electromagnetism,
gravity, strong force and weak force. Different bosons are responsible for
carrying the different forces between the fermions.
The Standard
Model describes what is known as the Higgs field, an energy field
believed to permeate the entire universe. The interaction of particles in the
Higgs field gives them their mass; and a measurable boson called the Higgs
boson is the force carrier for the Higgs field. Now, none of the known bosons
is the carrier of the force of gravity; This has led to the postulation of a
hypothetical particle, not yet detected, called a graviton.
String theory
In 1969, in an
attempt to explain the strong nuclear force, which binds protons and neutrons
together within the atomic nucleus, the American Leonard Susskind developed the
idea of string theory. Japanese-American Yoichiro Nambu and Danish Holger
Nielsen conceived the same idea at the same time. According to string theory,
particles (the building blocks of the universe) are not like dots, but rather
something like tiny, one-dimensional vibrating threads of energy, or strings,
that give rise to all forces and matter. When the strings collide, they combine
and vibrate together briefly before separating again.
Early models of
string theory were problematic. They explained bosons but not fermions, and
needed certain hypothetical particles, called tachyons, to travel faster than
light. They also needed many more dimensions than the four known ones of space
and time.
According to
string theory, elementary
particles (such as electrons and quarks, which make up protons and neutrons)
are strings or filaments of energy. Each string vibrates with a different
frequency, and those vibrations correspond to the speed, spin, and charge of
the particles.
Supersymmetry
To circumvent
some of these early problems, the principle of supersymmetry was devised, which
proposes that the universe is symmetrical and provides each of the known particles
of the Standard Model with an undetected companion, or
"superpartner"; So, for example, each fermion is paired with a boson,
and vice versa.
According to
supersymmetry, every boson (force-carrying particle) has as a massive
"superpartner" a fermion (matter particle), and every fermion has a
boson. Superstring theory describes supercompanion particles as strings that
vibrate in higher octaves. According to some theorists, supercompanions may
have masses up to a thousand times greater than those of their corresponding
particles, but no supersymmetric particles have yet been found.
When the Higgs
boson, predicted in 1964 by Britain's Peter Higgs, was detected in 2012 by
CERN's Large Hadron Collider, it turned out to be lighter than expected.
Particle physicists believed it would be heavier because of its interactions in
the Higgs field with Standard Model particles, to which it gave mass. But it
wasn't. The idea of supercompanions, particles capable of potentially
nullifying some of the effects of the Higgs field and producing a lighter Higgs
boson, allowed scientists to address that problem. It also allowed them to
discover that three of the four forces of nature (i.e., electromagnetism,
strong force, and weak force) may have existed with the same energies at the
Big Bang, a crucial step toward unifying those forces into a Unified Grand
Theory.
Superstring
theory
Together, string
theory and supersymmetry gave rise to superstring theory, in which all fermions
and bosons and their supercompanion particles are the result of vibrating
strings of energy. In the 1980s, American John Schwarz and British Michael
Green developed the idea that elementary particles such as electrons and quarks
are the outer manifestations of vibrating "strings" on the scale of
quantum gravity.
Just as different
vibrations of a violin's string produce different notes, properties such as
mass are the result of different vibrations of the same type of string. An
electron is a segment of string that vibrates in a certain way, while a quark
is an identical segment of string that vibrates in a different way. Schwarz and
Green observed that string theory predicted a massless particle similar to the
hypothetical graviton. The existence of such a particle could explain why
gravity is so weak compared to the other three forces, since gravitons would
enter and leave the approximate ten dimensions required by string theory. Thus,
at last something that Einstein sought for a long time appeared, a theory
capable of describing everything in the universe, a "theory of
everything".
A unifying theory
Physicists in
search of an all-encompassing theory encounter problems when confronted with
black holes, where the theory of general relativity joins quantum mechanics in
trying to explain what happens when an immense amount of matter is compressed
into a very small space. According to general relativity, one could say that
the core of a black hole (its singularity) is essentially zero in size.
However, according to quantum mechanics, that is impossible because nothing can
be infinitely small. According to the uncertainty principle conceived by the
German Werner Heisenberg in 1927, it is not possible to reach infinitely small
levels because a particle can always exist in multiple states. Fundamental
quantum theories such as superposition and entanglement also determine that
particles can be in two states at once. They have to produce a gravitational
field, which would be consistent with general relativity, but this does not
seem to be the case according to quantum theory.
If superstring
theory could solve some of those problems, it would become the unifying theory
physicists are looking for. It would be possible to demonstrate it by colliding
particles. Some scientists believe that, at higher energies, gravitons may be
seen dissolving in other dimensions, which would be a fundamental test in favor
of the theory.
Untangling the
idea
The walls of the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory are covered with photomultipliers to detect the light emitted by neutrinos interacting with the water in the tank.
Some scientists,
such as the American Sheldon Glashow, believe that string theory research is
useless because no one will ever be able to prove whether the strings it
describes exist. They deal with energies so high (beyond the measurement called
Planck energy) that it is impossible for us to detect them, and may remain
impossible in the immediate future. Our inability to design an experiment that
tests string theory led some scientists like Glashow to wonder if it is
actually a scientific theory. There are those who disagree and point out that
experiments are underway trying to find some of those effects and provide an
answer. The Super-Kamiokande experiment in Japan, for example, could
demonstrate aspects of string theory by studying proton decay (the theorized
decay of a proton over extremely long timescales), a phenomenon predicted by
supersymmetry.
Superstring
theory can explain much of the unknown universe – for example, why the Higgs
boson is so light and why gravity is so weak – and perhaps it can explain the
nature of dark energy and dark matter. Some scientists even believe that string
theory could provide information about the fate of the universe, and whether it
will continue to expand indefinitely.
Annex 17.
Primordial black holes, MACHOs and WIMMP's
Primordial Black
Holes Could Explain Dark Matter, Galaxy Growth and More
https://es.knowablemagazine.org/article/physical-world/2022/agujeros-negros-primordiales
One day just over
five years ago, Ely Kovetz was having lunch with his colleagues at Johns
Hopkins University in Baltimore and discussing a tantalizing rumor. Like many
in the physics community, Kovetz had heard the rumor about a possible signal
from a newly put into operation American physics observatory. The observatory
was designed to pick up perturbations in the fabric of space-time, ripples
created, among other things, by black holes colliding with each other. Most
intriguingly, the signal appeared to have been created by massive objects, much
heavier than expected. That pointed to some surprising possibilities.
"The first
thing everyone thought was, 'What? This cannot be. This is impossible,'"
recalls Kovetz, a physicist at Israel's Ben-Gurion University and a visiting
professor at Johns Hopkins. But then a more exciting suspicion began to arise.
Perhaps, they thought, this could be a sign of primordial black holes.
Black holes since
the beginning of time! It sounds like the title of a low-budget science fiction
movie, but fractions of a second after our universe was born, a swarm of
voracious black holes could have formed spontaneously from the fiery energy
that permeated the cosmos. Supported by mathematics and theory, but never
definitively observed, these primordial black holes are a possibility that has
fascinated physicists for nearly half a century, gaining or losing popularity
as new observations seemed to support or exclude their existence.
The puzzling 2015
signals from the U.S. Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory
(LIGO), and dozens of other detections by the observatory and its European
counterpart, Virgo, have fueled renewed interest in the idea, with hundreds of
papers published about them in just the past five years.
Primordial black
holes, if they existed, would be massive entities that do not emit light, so
they would be invisible. Since they would be scattered throughout the universe,
they could help make sense of a wide variety of bizarre observations that have
so far defied explanation. One of the main reasons researchers are drawn to
these strange black holes is that they could solve one of astrophysics' biggest
and most enigmatic mysteries: the identity of dark matter.
Even if they
can't detect it, physicists know that dark matter exists because its
gravitational effects are seen throughout the cosmos. But no one knows what
it's made of. Primordial massive black holes could be the long-sought answer.
These large, heavy objects could also have served as anchors around which the
first galaxies coalesced, another conundrum that has long resisted explanation.
Although
skepticism remains, true believers eagerly await new telescope projects and sky
surveys that could finally bring these captivating beasts from the sphere of
speculation into the realm of reality.
Several galaxies
collide with each other in the famous Bullet Cluster, leaving clusters of hot
gas (shown in pink) and an even greater amount of dark matter (shown in blue).
Some physicists believe that primordial black holes could make up a significant
fraction of the dark matter in the universe.
CREDIT: NASA
HST/CXC/MAGELLAN
Of MACHOs and
WIMPs
Ordinary black
holes arise from death. When a large star reaches the end of its life, it
explodes in a spectacular supernova. The star's heavy core, which can weigh at
least several times the mass of the Sun, collapses into a compact object so
dense that not even light can escape its gravitational pull. A black hole is
born.
In the seventies,
the brilliant physicist Stephen Hawking and his PhD student Bernard Carr proposed another possible creation path for black holes. It was known that,
shortly after the big bang, the
universe was filled with a thick soup of radiation and fundamental particles
such as quarks and gluons, the building blocks of protons and neutrons. Natural
variations in density in the soup would have left some regions with more
material and others with less. Hawking and Carr's equations showed that areas
with enough radiation and particles packed into them could have collapsed in on
themselves and formed black holes with a wide range of possible sizes.
This idea was
shelved, but dusted off in the nineties, when the debate about what might
constitute dark matter began to heat up. The enigmatic substance has been seen
gravitationally tugging at stars and galaxies and spinning them much faster
than expected. Observations suggest that this invisible dark matter is so
ubiquitous that it outnumbers the matter we can see in the cosmos by more than
five to one.
One camp favored
the explanation that dark matter was made up of compact objects, including
black holes—with a large number of primordial black holes since the beginning
of time to help explain the vast amount of dark matter—which were given the
acronym Massive Astrophysical Halo Compact Objects (MACHO, for its acronym in
English). Rival scientists preferred the perspective known as Weakly
Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs), hitherto undetected subatomic particles
that could exert a gravitational pull while remaining invisible.
The gravity of a
massive red galaxy magnifies and distorts the light from a distant and ancient
galaxy behind it, forming a blue ring-shaped object known as the Cosmic
Horseshoe. These fortuitous alignments create a lensing effect that could allow
astronomers to detect evidence of primordial black holes drifting in space.
CREDIT:
ESA/HUBBLE AND NASA
According to the
laws of physics, MACHOs would warp space-time around them, forming lens-like
regions that would create observable distortions. When light from distant stars
passes through these lenses, ground-based telescopes should see how the stars
light up briefly. However, when astronomers looked for those flashes, they
found few cases that could be attributed to MACHOs, leading most physicists to
focus on the idea that dark matter is made up of WIMPs.
But some
researchers never quite gave up hope that black holes had any role in dark
matter. Among them is Carr, now at Queen Mary University of London in the
United Kingdom, who co-authored a recent paper on primordial black holes in the
journal Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle
Science.
"Primordial black holes are ideal candidates," he says. "We do
know that black holes exist. We are not invoking some particle that we
currently have no proof of."
Mysterious
noises at night
Over the
intervening decades, the search for WIMPs has so far yielded no results, though
not for lack of trying. Huge detectors dedicated to discovering its existence
have seen nothing. And the powerful Large Hadron Collider particle accelerator
near Geneva has found no hint of unexpected new subatomic entities.
Consequently, some researchers had already moved away from the idea of WIMPs
when the new LIGO signals were detected, sparking rumors and refocusing
attention on MACHO black holes.
The signals
detected by LIGO in 2015 were confirmed to be squeaks coming from a huge
collision between two black holes, each weighing about 30 solar masses. The
objects were strangely bulky — so large that if they had been created by
collapsing stars, they would have had masses up to 100 times that of our Sun.
These beasts should be quite rare in the universe, Kovetz says, so either LIGO
was lucky with its first detection and detected a very unusual event, or there
are more giant black holes than physicists would expect if collapsing stars
were their sole origin. After the discovery was announced the following year,
three different teams proposed that these objects had not been born from stars,
but at the dawn of time, before they existed.
"When I
wrote this article... I was hoping someone would give some reason why it
definitely couldn't be true," says Simeon Bird, a cosmologist at the
University of California, Riverside, whose paper, co-authored with Kovetz and
others, was the first to come to light. Instead, LIGO continued to pick up
additional signals from other black holes in this immense mass range,
triggering exciting activity among theoretical physicists that has yet to
subside.
If primordial
black holes exist, some researchers think they could cluster in clusters with a
few heavy entities surrounded by many lighter ones, as illustrated here. New
telescopes are on the hunt for signals from such putative black hole arrays.
CREDIT: INGRID
BOURGAULT / WIKIMEDIA COMMONS
The new signals
come at a time when our understanding of the scorching conditions immediately
after the big bang — when primordial black holes would have formed — has
been vastly improved by new theoretical models. A recent study by Carr and others suggests that, about a millionth of a
second after the big bang, the
expansion of space-time would have caused a drop in temperature and pressure
that could have aligned appropriately to produce relatively small black holes
with masses similar to that of the Sun. Soon after, conditions changed to favor
the appearance of large black holes, with about 30 solar masses.
The models also
suggest that, throughout cosmic history, these various primordial black holes
could have found each other. Attracted by gravity, the black holes could have
formed clusters, with multiple smaller objects revolving around a central giant
black hole, much like electrons typically orbit around an atomic nucleus.
This could
explain why the MACHO hunters of the nineties never saw enough objects to
account for dark matter: they only looked for gravitational lensing created by
the smallest types of black holes. The lenses of smaller objects would be more
compact and, floating around the galaxy, would take less than a year to pass in
front of the stars, causing their light to brighten and then dim relatively
quickly. If black holes were found in clusters, the much greater gravitational
warping of space-time would take longer to pass in front of a distant star —
several years or even decades.
Search for
galaxies
About 15 seconds
after the big bang, another type of black hole could have emerged.
According to current calculations, these black holes would weigh a million
times the mass of the Sun, large enough to potentially explain the origin of galaxies.
Telescopes have
detected fairly developed galaxies at great distances, meaning they formed
fairly early in cosmic history. This is puzzling, since galaxies are huge
structures and, at least in computer simulations, take a long time to form from the slow,
heavy swirls of gas and dust found throughout the cosmos. But this is the best
explanation for its formation that astronomers have found so far.
Primordial black
holes may provide an easier route. Since almost all galaxies contain a huge
black hole at the center, it seems possible that these gravitational goliaths
acted as starting points, helping to pull material toward the first
protogalaxies at a fairly early stage in cosmic history. As the universe
progressed, these small galaxies would have gravitationally attracted each
other, then collided and merged into the much larger galaxies seen today.
Carr and his
colleagues have begun to consider the possibility that primordial black holes
are much more widespread than suspected. In theory, conditions that occurred
shortly after the big bang could have produced even smaller,
planet-scale black holes with masses about 10 times that of Earth. In fact,
studies have detected tiny gravitational lenses floating around the galaxy,
which pass in front of stars and cause their light to flicker rapidly. Most
astrophysicists have attributed these lenses to large rogue planets that were
ejected from their star systems. But not everyone agrees.
Among them is
theoretical physicist Juan García-Bellido of the Autonomous University of
Madrid, who claims that lenses are caused by primordial black holes.
Garcia-Bellido, co-author of Carr's recent paper, remains enthusiastic about
the idea of primordial black holes.
The new Vera C.
Rubin observatory, which is under construction in Chile and will become
operational in late 2023, will be used to scan the night sky for evidence of
primordial black holes.
CREDIT: RUBIN OBS
/ NSF / AURA
But others aren't
sure black holes are as prevalent as they should be to explain dark matter.
"I think it's unlikely," says cosmologist Anne Green of the
University of Nottingham in the United Kingdom. One of the problems with the
theory is that the existence of large numbers of multisolar-mass black
holes throughout the cosmos would have
all sorts of visible effects that have never been seen. Because these objects
consume gas and dust, they should emit large amounts of radio waves and X-rays
that could betray their presence, he adds.
As for dark
matter, theoretical models of the early universe also require a lot of tweaking
so that they yield the right number of black holes that match the amount of
dark matter we know exists. "It's pretty hard to make models that produce
the right number of black holes," Green says.
Even some of the
biggest fans of primordial black holes are no longer so optimistic about the
possibility that the types of black holes detected by LIGO could account for
all the dark matter in the universe. If many of those black holes were lurking
in space, astronomers would have already seen more of their effects, Kovetz
says. He still thinks they may contribute something and, in general, that
including more primordial black hole sizes beyond what LIGO has detected could
add up to enough to explain dark matter. And yet, "personally, I've lost
some of my motivation."
The good news is
that new instruments could help physicists get to the bottom of the matter very
soon. LIGO and Virgo are being upgraded and have now been joined by a Japanese
gravitational-wave detector called KAGRA. An Indian instrument will also be launched
in the coming years.
Observations from
these facilities could finally tip the balance one way or the other. If
observatories detect a small black hole of a solar mass or less — something
impossible to create from stellar evolution — it would provide exciting and
definitive proof of at least one type of primordial black hole, making them a
much more attractive explanation for dark matter and galaxy formation.
In addition to
looking for very small black holes, scientists could also seal the deal by
finding black holes that formed even before stars existed. This may be beyond
the capacity of existing observatories, but the European Space Agency is
planning to launch in the next decade a new, highly sensitive space probe
called the Laser Interferometry Space Antenna (LISA), which could be up to the
task.
Garcia-Bellido
and others are planning to use another new instrument that is scheduled to
become operational in 2023, Chile's Vera C. Rubin Observatory, to search for
stars that shine on multi-year timescales, which could be proof of the
existence of drifting black hole clusters in the skies. At least a few
researchers hope that, within three or four years, they may finally have a real
and definitive answer about whether primordial black holes exist or not.
Until then,
scientists will be on the edge of their seats, trying to keep an open mind
about dark matter. Perhaps the mysterious substance turns out to be made of
many things, including both exotic particles and black holes. "The
universe is messy and has a lot of stuff in it," Bird says. "I think
the universe likes to make things difficult for physicists."
Annex 18.
Maldacena Conjecture
/ AdS/CTF Correspondence: The equivalence between string theory or supergravity
defined in a certain class of anti-de
Sitter space
and a conformal field theory defined at its boundary with dimension less than one.
AdS/CFT
correspondence:
https://www.wikiwand.com/es/Correspondencia_AdS/CFT
In theoretical physics, the AdS/CFT correspondence (anti-de
Sitter space/conformal field theory), also called Maldacena conjecture, Maldacena
duality, or gauge/gravity duality,
is a conjectured relationship
between two types of physical theories. On the one hand there are the anti-de
Sitter spaces
(AdS) that are used in quantum gravity theories, formulated in terms of string theory
or M-theory. On the other side of the
correspondence are conformal field theories (CFTs) which are quantum field theories, which include
theories similar to Yang-Mills
theories that describe
elementary particles.
Duality
represents a breakthrough in our understanding of string theory and quantum
gravity. This is because it provides a nonperturbative formulation
of string theory with certain boundary conditions and because it is the
most successful realization of the holographic
principle, an idea in
quantum gravity originally proposed by Gerard 't Hooft and promoted by Leonard Susskind.
In physics, the AdS/CFT correspondence
is the equivalence between a string theory or supergravity defined on a certain class of
anti-de
Sitter space
and a conformal
field theory defined at
its boundary with dimension less by one.
The anti-de
Sitter space (AdS) corresponds to a
solution to Einstein's equations with negative cosmological constant, and is a
classical theory of gravity; while conformal field theory (CFT) is a quantum
theory. This correspondence between a classical theory of gravity and a quantum
one may be the path to quantum gravity.
The AdS/CFT
correspondence was originally proposed by Argentine physicist Juan Maldacena in late 1997, and some of its technical properties were soon clarified in a paper by Edward Witten and
another paper by Gubser, Klebanov and Polyakov. By 2015, Maldacena's paper had over 10,000 citations, making it the most
cited paper in the field of particle
physics.
Summary of
correspondence
A tessellation of
the hyperbolic plane by triangles and squares.
The geometry
of anti-de Sitter space
In the AdS/CFT
correspondence, string theory or M-theory on an anti-de Sitter background is
considered. This means that the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of
a certain vacuum solution of the Einstein equation called anti-de Sitter.
In very
elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in
which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the
notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to
hyperbolic space, which can be seen as a disk as illustrated on the
right. This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can
define the distance between the points of this disk in such a way that all the
triangles and squares are the same size, and the outer circular boundary is
infinitely far from any point inside.
Now imagine a
stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe
at any given time. The resulting geometric object is the three-dimensional
anti-de Sitter space. It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross-section
is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in
this image. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT
correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, the anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the
interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface.
Anti-de Sitter
three-dimensional space is like a stack
of hyperbolic disks, each representing the state of the universe at a given
time. The resulting spacetime resembles a solid cylinder.
This construction
describes a hypothetical universe with only two spatial dimensions and one
temporal dimension but can be generalized to any number of dimensions. In fact,
hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can
"stack" copies of hyperbolic space to obtain higher-dimensional
models of anti-de Sitter space.
The idea of
AdS/CFT
An important
feature of anti-de Sitter space is its limit (which resembles a cylinder in the
case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this limit is
that, locally around any point, it resembles Minkowski
space, the model of
spacetime used in non-professional physics.
Therefore, it can
be considered an auxiliary theory in which "spacetime" is given by
the limit of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for the AdS/CFT correspondence, which states
that the limit of the anti-de Sitter space
can be considered as the "spacetime" for a conformal field
theory. The claim is that this conformal
field theory is equivalent to
gravitational theory in bulk anti-de
Sitter space in the sense that there is
a "dictionary" for translating calculations in one theory into
calculations in the other. Each entity in one theory has a counterpart in the
other theory. For example, a single particle in gravitational theory could
correspond to some collection of particles in limit theory. Furthermore, the
predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical, so that if two
particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in gravitational theory, then
the corresponding collections in the limit theory would also have a 40 percent
chance of colliding.
A hologram is a two-dimensional image that stores information about the three
dimensions of the object it represents. The two images here are photographs of
a single hologram taken from different angles.
Note that the
limit of anti-de Sitter space has fewer dimensions than the anti-de Sitter
space itself. For example, in the three-dimensional example illustrated above,
the boundary is a two-dimensional surface. The AdS/CFT correspondence is often
described as a "holographic duality", because this relationship
between the two theories is similar to the relationship between a
three-dimensional object and its image as a hologram. Although a hologram
is two-dimensional, it encodes information about the three dimensions of the
object it represents. In the same way, theories that are related by the AdS/CFT
correspondence are conjectured to be exactly equivalent, despite living in
different numbers of dimensions. Conformal field theory is like a hologram that captures information
about higher-dimensional quantum gravity theory.
Examples of
correspondence
Following
Maldacena's understanding in 1997, theorists have discovered many different
embodiments of the AdS/CFT correspondence. These relate various conformal theories of the field to the compactifications of string
theory and M-theory in various numbers of dimensions. The theories involved are
generally not viable models of the real world, but they have certain
characteristics, such as their particle content or high degree of symmetry,
that make them useful for solving problems in quantum field theory and quantum
gravity.
The most famous
example of the AdS/CFT correspondence indicates that type IIB string theory in the product space 5 is equivalent to the supersymmetric N=4 Yang-Mills theory on the four-dimensional limit. In this
example, the space-time in which gravitational theory lives is effectively
five-dimensional 5), and there are five additional compact dimensions . In the real world, space-time is
four-dimensional, at least macroscopically, so this version of correspondence
does not provide a realistic model of gravity. Similarly, dual theory is not a
viable model of any real-world system, as it assumes a great deal of supersymmetry. However, as explained below, this limit theory
shares some features in common with quantum chromodynamics, the fundamental
theory of the
strong force. It
describes gluon-like particles
in quantum
chromodynamics along with
certain fermions. As a result, it has found applications in nuclear physics, particularly in the study of
quark-gluon plasma.
Another
embodiment of the correspondence indicates that the theory M
is equivalent to the so-called (2,0) theory in six dimensions. In this
example, the spacetime of gravitational theory is effectively
seven-dimensional. The existence of theory (2,0) appearing on one side of
duality is predicted by the classification of superconformal field theories. It
is still poorly understood because it is a quantum mechanical theory without a classical limit. Despite the difficulty inherent in studying
this theory, it is considered to be an interesting object for a variety of
reasons, both physical and mathematical.
Another
embodiment of the correspondence states that M4 7 theory
is equivalent to ABJM superconformal field theory in three dimensions. Here gravitational
theory has four non-compact dimensions, so this version of correspondence
provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity.
History and
development
Gerard 't Hooft obtained results related to AdS /CFT
correspondence in the 1970s by studying analogies between string theory and nuclear physics.
String theory
and nuclear physics
Main article: Second superstring revolution
The discovery of
the AdS/CFT correspondence in late 1997 was the culmination of a long history
of efforts to relate string theory to nuclear physics. In fact, string
theory was originally developed in the late sixties and early seventies as a
theory of hadrons, subatomic particles such as the proton and neutron held
together by the strong
nuclear force. The idea
was that each of these particles could be seen as a different mode of
oscillation of a chain. In the late sixties, experimentalists had found that
hadrons fell into families called Regge trajectories with square energy
proportional to angular momentum, and theorists showed that this relationship
arises naturally from the physics of a rotating relativistic string.
On the other
hand, attempts to model hadrons as strings faced serious problems. One problem
is that string theory includes a massless spin-2 particle, while no particle
appears in hadron physics. Such a particle would mediate a force with the
properties of gravity. In 1974, Joel Scherk and John Schwarz suggested that
string theory was therefore not a theory of nuclear physics, as many theorists
had thought, but a theory of quantum gravity. At the same time, they
noticed that hadrons are actually made from quarks, and the sequence theory
approach was abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics.
In quantum
chromodynamics, quarks have a kind of charge that comes in three varieties
called colors. In a 1974 paper, Gerard 't Hooft studied the relationship between string theory
and nuclear physics from another point of view by considering theories similar
to quantum chromodynamics, where the number of colors is an arbitrary number, rather than Three. In this article, 't
Hooft considered a certain limit where it tends to infinity and argued that at
this limit certain calculations in quantum field theory resemble calculations
in string theory.
Black holes
and holography
Stephen
Hawking predicted in 1975
that the black hole emits Hawking
radiation due to quantum
effects.
Main articles: Paradox of information loss in black holes, Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet and Holographic
principle
In 1975, Stephen
Hawking published a calculation that suggested that black holes are not
completely black, as they emit faint radiation due to quantum effects near the event
horizon. This work
extended on the earlier results of Jacob Bekenstein who had suggested that
black holes have a well-defined entropy. At first, Hawking's result seemed
to contradict one of the main postulates of quantum mechanics, namely the
unitarity of the evolution of time. Intuitively, the unitarity postulate says that quantum mechanical systems do not
destroy information as they evolve from one state to another. For this reason,
the apparent contradiction came to be known as the black hole information
paradox.
Leonard Susskind made early contributions to the idea of holography in quantum gravity.
Later, in 1993,
Gerard 't Hooft wrote a speculative paper
on quantum
gravity in which he reviewed Hawking's work on the thermodynamics of black holes, concluding that the total number of degrees of freedom in a region of
space-time surrounding a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the
horizon. This idea was promoted by Leonard Susskind and is now known as
the holographic principle. The holographic
principle and its realization in string theory through
AdS/CFT correspondence have helped elucidate the mysteries of black holes
suggested by Hawking's work and are believed to provide a resolution of the
black hole information paradox. In 2004, Hawking admitted that black holes do
not violate quantum mechanics, and suggested a concrete mechanism by which they
could preserve information.
Maldacena's work
At the end of
1997, Juan Maldacena published a reference paper that
initiated the study of AdS/CFT. According to Alexander Markovich Polyakov, "[Maldacena's] work opened the
floodgates." The conjecture immediately aroused great interest in the
string theory community and was considered in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor
Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov, and by Edward Witten. These papers made Maldacena's conjecture
more accurate and showed that the conformal field theory that appears in correspondence lives at the
limit of anti-de Sitter space.
Juan Maldacena first proposed the AdS/CFT correspondence in late
1997.
A special case of
Maldacena's proposal says that the N=4
super-Yang-Mills theory, a caliber theory
similar in some respects to quantum chromodynamics, is equivalent to
string theory in anti-de Sitter
space in five dimensions. This result
helped clarify 't Hooft's earlier work
on the relationship between string theory and quantum chromodynamics,
taking string theory back to its roots as a theory of nuclear physics.
Maldacena's results also provided a
concrete realization of the holographic
principle with important
implications for quantum gravity and black hole physics. By 2015, Maldacena's
paper had become the most cited paper in
high-energy
physics with more than
10,000 citations. These subsequent articles have provided considerable
evidence that the correspondence is correct, although so far it has not been
rigorously demonstrated.
AdS/CFT finds
applications
Main articles:
AdS/QCD and AdS/CMT
In 1999, after
taking a job at Columbia
University, nuclear
physicist Đàm Thanh Sơn paid a visit to
Andrei Starinets, a friend from the days of Sơn's student who happened to do a PhD. In string theory
at New
York University. Although
the two men had no intention of collaborating, Sơn soon realized that the
AdS/CFT calculations Starinets was doing
could shed light on some aspects of quark-gluon plasma, an exotic state of
matter produced when heavy ions collided at high energies. In collaboration
with Starinets and Pavel Kovtun, Sơn was able to use AdS/CFT matching to
calculate a key plasma parameter. As Sơn later recalled: "We did the
calculation in his head to give us a prediction of the shear viscosity value of
a plasma... A friend of mine in nuclear physics joked that ours was the first
useful paper to come out of string theory."
Today physicists
are still looking for applications of the AdS/CFT correspondence in quantum
field theory. In addition to the applications to nuclear physics advocated
by Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators, condensed matter physicists such as
Subir Sachdev have used string theory methods to understand some aspects of
condensed matter physics. A notable result in this direction was the
description, through AdS/CFT correspondence, of the transition from a
superfluid to an insulator. Another emerging subject is fluid/gravity correspondence, which uses
AdS/CFT correspondence to translate problems in fluid
dynamics into problems in
general relativity.
Annex 19. A
photon has gone back in time
How in quantum
physics they are achieving what until now seemed impossible: reversing time
The border
between science and science fiction is sometimes almost imperceptible. And we
owe it, of course, to our increasingly precise understanding of the world in
which we live. That macroscopic world that we can see with our eyes and in
which the processes seem to run in a single direction in time: from the
present to the future.
We are so
intimately accustomed to observing this phenomenon that we find it very
difficult to accept the possibility of reversing a process over time. To recover it as it was before having
undergone some change that we could consider permanent. But it's not
impossible. Quantum physics has just shown us that it is feasible both
theoretically and practically.
Quantum
physics and our intuition are, once again, about to collide.
Our intuition
invites us to conclude that the irreversibility of processes is a fundamental
law. And the second principle of thermodynamics proves us right. It can be
formulated in many different ways, but all of them, if correct, invite us to
conclude that physical phenomena are irreversible.
If we place a
container with very hot water on our kitchen countertop and do nothing with it,
the water will cool. And if we drop a glass and explode when hitting the
ground, it will not recompose itself. Precisely heat exchange and entropy are
two properties intimately linked to the second principle of thermodynamics.
Entropy is
usually defined as the magnitude that measures the degree of disorder of a
physical system. It is perhaps an oversimplification, but it can help us
understand what we are talking about without being forced to resort to complex
concepts. In any case, this thermodynamic principle is statistical in nature,
and, moreover, classical physics is deterministic.
This means that
it is possible to predict the evolution of a physical system over time if we
know its initial state and the differential equations that describe its
behavior. However, in the domain of quantum physics, in the world of the very small, of particles,
the reversibility of physical processes is possible. It has been so from a
theoretical point of view for a long time, and now it is also in practice.
Quantum
physics allows it: a photon has gone back in time
Physicists flirt
with the possibility of reversing processes over time for many years. In fact,
some theorists work on some very peculiar tools that quantum mechanics has
placed in their hands: universal rewinding or rewinding protocols. We do
not need to know in detail how these mechanisms work, but it comes from pearls
to know that they serve to reverse the changes that a quantum system has
undergone without knowing what its initial state was. And without knowing what
those changes consisted of.
Universal
reversal protocols serve to reverse the changes that a quantum system has
undergone without knowing what its initial state was.
It almost looks
like magic, but it's not. It's science. And, precisely, the Spanish theoretical
physicist Miguel Navascués leads a research team at the Institute of Quantum
Optics and Quantum Information of the Austrian Academy of Sciences expert in
this discipline. Miguel and his collaborators have designed an innovative
theoretical reversal protocol that proposes, broadly speaking, what procedure
can be used to get a quantum system to recover its initial state without
knowing what changes it has undergone.
Putting something
like this into practice is not easy, which has meant that experimental
physicists working in this area have not been very successful. Fortunately, the
picture has changed. The team of experimental physicists at the University
of Vienna led by Philip Walther has successfully implemented the universal
reversal protocol designed by Miguel Navascués and his team.
At the heart of
their experiment is sophisticated optical equipment consisting of several
interferometers and fiber-optic links that behave together like a quantum
switch. Knowing in detail how this ingenuity works is beyond the purpose of
this article because, as we can guess, its complexity is extraordinary. Even
so, those who are not easily intimidated and curious can consult the article
published by Navascués, Walther and their teams in the journal Optica. It is very worthwhile.
The heart of
their experiment is sophisticated optical equipment consisting of several
interferometers and fiber optic links that behave together like a quantum
switch.
A note before
moving on: an interferometer is an optical device that uses a light source
(usually a laser) to measure very accurately the changes introduced in a
physical system. Described in this way it seems very complicated, and yes, it
is complicated, but we can resort to an example close in time to illustrate
what we are talking about.
The LIGO
experiments in the United States and Virgo in Italy used to identify and analyze gravitational waves are interferometers. And, as we have just
seen, both incorporate sophisticated optical equipment and a laser that allows
them to measure the gravitational perturbations generated by massive objects in
the cosmos that are subjected to a certain acceleration. These perturbations
propagate across the space-time continuum at the speed of light in the form of
waves, and interferometers pick them up.
In some ways the
quantum switch that Navascués and Walther's teams have built is similar to LIGO
or Virgo, but on an infinitely smaller scale because its purpose is to identify
and measure the changes introduced in a quantum system. What they have achieved
is astonishing: they have successfully reversed the evolution in time of a
photon without previously knowing either its initial state or what changes
it had undergone. In practice it is the same as traveling back in time.
This scheme
describes the ingenious optical equipment designed by researchers from the
University of Vienna and the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum
Information of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
It seems
reasonable to think that achieving this with a single particle, with a photon,
is not too interesting, but nothing is further from reality. The result
obtained by these researchers, which has already been peer-reviewed, is
extraordinary because it opens wide the doors that will probably allow us to
understand much better the rules that underlie the world in which we live. The
rules, in short of quantum mechanics.
What allows this
experiment to stand out from previous ones that also sought to demonstrate the
possibility of reversing the state of a quantum system is that the universal
reversal protocol of Navascués and Walther has managed to do so without having any
prior information about the state of the quantum system. We can see it as
if they had managed to perfectly recompose a porcelain vase without knowing the
number of fragments they had initially, their shape, much less that they
belonged to a vase and were porcelain.
In the
conclusions of their article these researchers insist on something very
important: the results they have obtained are not valid only in quantum systems
of photonic nature, which are those that work with light; They are consistent
with other quantum systems. For this reason, the applications of this
technology can be very numerous, especially in the field of quantum computing.
Universal
reversal protocols can theoretically be used to solve one of the biggest
challenges currently posed by quantum computers: error correction. In
fact, this is probably the highest wall that
quantum computing researchers will have to break down to get quantum
computers to be able to solve the kinds of complex problems at which they are
theoretically far superior to classical supercomputers.
Annex 20.
Lambda-CDM (Cold Dark Matter) Cosmological Model
Lambda-CDM model:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_Lambda-CDM
In cosmology, the Lambda-CDM (Lambda-Cold Dark Matter) model
represents the Big Bang concordance model that explains
cosmic observations of the microwave background radiation as well as the large-scale structure of the universe.
and observations of supernovae, shedding light on the explanation for the acceleration of the expansion of the Universe. It is the simplest known model that
agrees with all observations.
- Λ (lambda) indicates the cosmological
constant as part of
a dark energy term that allows us to know the current value of
the accelerated expansion of the Universe that began about 6 billion years
ago. 1 The cosmological constant is described in
terms of the fraction of energy density of a
flat universe. At present, 0.70, implying that it is equivalent to
70% of the energy density of the present universe.
- Cold dark matter is the model
of dark
matter in which the
speed of its particles is much lower than
the speed
of light, hence the
adjective "cold". Cold dark matter is non-baryonic, unlike normal baryonic matter with which it
does not interact except by gravity. This component constitutes 26% of the
energy density of the current universe. The remaining 4% is all matter and
energy (baryonic matter), which make up
the atoms and photons that are the building blocks of planets, stars and gas clouds in the universe.
- The model assumes a near-scale
invariance
spectrum of primordial perturbations
and a universe without spatial
curvature. It also
assumes that it has no observable topology, so that the universe is much
larger than the observable horizon of the particle. Predictions of cosmic
inflation are given.
The model assumes
that General
Relativity is the correct
theory of gravity on cosmological scales. It is often referred to as the
standard model of Big Bang cosmology, because it is the simplest model that
provides a reasonably good explanation of the following properties of the
cosmos:
- The existence and structure of the cosmic
microwave background
- The large-scale structure of the galaxy
distribution
- The abundances of hydrogen (including
deuterium), helium and lithium
- The accelerated expansion of the universe
observed in distant galaxies and supernovae
The ΛCDM model
has been successfully simulated in supercomputers: starting from the
composition of the Universe (atoms of hydrogen, helium, lithium, etc., photons,
neutrinos,... 11.5 million years after the Big Bang, the simulation forms
stars, galaxies and structures of clusters and superclusters of galaxies very
similar to the real objects we observe in the sky2The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding
cosmological inflation, quintessence and other elements that are current areas
of study and research in Cosmology.
External links:
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https://www.abc.es/ciencia/abci-bang-pudo-fabricar-futuros-diferentes-202103070858_noticia.html
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https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-64065872
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https://www.curiosamente.com/videos/que-es-la-gravedad-cuantica-de-bucles
http://www.javierdelucas.es/vaciomedir.htm
https://es.resonancescience.org/blog/la-catastrofe-del-vacio-2
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https://www.wikiwand.com/es/Correspondencia_AdS/CFT
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_Lambda-CDM